CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

4 SOLIDS
Pure Bending

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Pure Bending
Pure Bending Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of
Other Loading Types Symmetry
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending Example 4.07
Bending Deformations Sample Problem 4.8
Strain Due to Bending Unsymmetric Bending
Beam Section Properties Example 4.08
Properties of American Standard Shapes General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading
Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section
Sample Problem 4.2
Bending of Members Made of Several
Materials
Example 4.03

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Pure Bending

Pure Bending: Prismatic members subjected to equal and

opposite couples acting in the same longitudinal plane

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Other Loading Types

• Eccentric Loading: Axial loading which does not pass

through section centroid produces internal forces
equivalent to an axial force and a couple

• Transverse Loading: Concentrated or distributed

transverse load produces internal forces equivalent to a
shear force and a couple

• Principle of Superposition: The normal stress due to

pure bending may be combined with the normal stress
due to axial loading and shear stress due to shear
loading to find the complete state of stress.

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Symmetric Member in Pure Bending
• Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent to a couple.
The moment of the couple is the section bending moment.
• From statics, a couple M consists of two equal and opposite
forces.
• The sum of the components of the forces in any direction is
zero.
• The moment is the same about any axis perpendicular to the
plane of the couple and zero about any axis contained in the
plane.
• These requirements may be applied to the sums of the
components and moments of the statically indeterminate
elementary internal forces. Fx    x dA  0
M y   z x dA  0
M z    y x dA  M
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Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending:
• member remains symmetric
• bends uniformly to form a circular arc
• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center and remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the upper and lower
surfaces and for which the length does not change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive) above the neutral
plane and positive (tension) below it

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Strain Due to Bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.

After deformation, the length of the neutral surface remains L.
At other sections,
L     y 
  L  L     y      y
 y y
x    (strain varies linearly)
L  
c c
m  or ρ
 m
y
 x   m
c

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Stress Due to Bending
• For a linearly elastic material,
y
 x  E x   E m
c
y
   m (stress varies linearly)
c • For static equilibrium,
• For static equilibrium,  y 
M    y x dA    y    m  dA
y  c 
Fx  0    x dA     m dA
c m 2  mI
M   y dA 
c c
m
0    y dA m 
Mc

M
c I S
First moment with respect to neutral plane y
Substituting  x   m
is zero. Therefore, the neutral surface c
must pass through the section centroid. My
x  
I
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Beam Section Properties
• The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
m  
I S
I  section moment of inertia
I
S   section modulus
c
A beam section with a larger section modulus will have a
lower maximum stress
• Consider a rectangular beam cross section,
1 3
I 12 bh
S   16 bh3  16 Ah
c h 2

Between two beams with the same cross sectional area,

the beam with the greater depth will be more effective
in resisting bending.
• Structural steel beams are designed to have a large
section modulus.
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Properties of American Standard Shapes

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Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section
• Deformation due to bending moment M is quantified by the
curvature of the neutral surface
1 m  m 1 Mc
  
 c Ec Ec I
M

EI

• Although cross sectional planes remain planar when subjected

to bending moments, in-plane deformations are nonzero,
y y
 y   x   z   x 
 

• Expansion above the neutral surface and contraction below it

cause an in-plane curvature,
1 
  anticlastic curvature
 
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Sample Problem 4.2
SOLUTION:
• Based on the cross section geometry, calculate the
location of the section centroid and moment of inertia.
Y 
 yA
A

I x   I  A d 2 
• Apply the elastic flexural formula to find the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
Mc
m 
A cast-iron machine part is acted upon I
by a 3 kN-m couple. Knowing E = 165
• Calculate the curvature
GPa and neglecting the effects of fillets,
1 M
determine (a) the maximum tensile and 
 EI
compressive stresses, (b) the radius of
curvature.
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Sample Problem 4.2
SOLUTION:
Based on the cross section geometry, calculate the location
of the section centroid and moment of inertia.
Area, mm2 y , mm yA, mm3
1 20  90  1800 50 90  103
2 40  30  1200 20 24  103
3
 A  3000  yA  114  10
3
 yA 114 10
Y    38 mm
 A 3000

  
I x   I  A d 2   12
1 bh3  A d 2 
  
1 90  203  1800  12 2  1 30  403  1200  182
 12 12

I  868  103 mm  868  10-9 m 4
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Sample Problem 4.2
• Apply the elastic flexural formula to find the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses.
Mc
m 
I
M c A 3 kN  m  0.022 m  A  76.0 MPa
A  
I 868 109 mm 4
M cB 3 kN  m  0.038 m
B     B  131.3 MPa
I 868  109 mm 4
• Calculate the curvature
1 M 1
  20.95  103 m -1
 EI 
3 kN  m   47.7 m
165 GPa  868 10-9 m 4 


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Practice Problems

4.1, 4.2, 4.6, 4.9, 4.11, 4.13, 4.15, 4.16,

4.18, 4.22, 4.25, 4.26, 4.27, 4.31

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Bending of Members Made of Several Materials
• Consider a composite beam formed from two
materials with E1 and E2.
• Normal strain varies linearly.
y
x  


• Piecewise linear normal stress variation.

E1 y E2 y
 1  E1 x    2  E2 x  
 
Neutral axis does not pass through section centroid of
composite section.
• Elemental forces on the section are
Ey E y
dF1   1dA   1 dA dF2   2 dA   2 dA
 
My
x  
I • Define a transformed section such that
1   x  2  n x
dF2  
 nE1  y dA   E1 y  n dA E
n 2
  E1

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Example 4.03
Bar is made from bonded pieces of steel
(Es = 29x106 psi) and brass (Eb = 15x106
psi). Determine the maximum stress in
the steel and brass when a moment of 40
kip*in is applied.
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SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass
• Evaluate the cross sectional properties of
the transformed section
• Calculate the maximum stress in the
transformed section. This is the correct
maximum stress for the brass pieces of the
bar.
• Determine the maximum stress in the steel
portion of the bar by multiplying the
maximum stress for the transformed section
by the ratio of the moduli of elasticity.
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Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross section made entirely
of brass. n  Es  29  106 psi  1.933
Eb 15  106 psi
bT  0.4 in  1.933  0.75 in  0.4 in  2.25 in

• Evaluate the transformed cross sectional properties

1 b h3  1  2.25 in. 3 in  3
I  12 T 12
 5.063 in 4
• Calculate the maximum stresses
Mc  40 kip  in 1.5 in 
m   4
 11 .85 ksi
I 5.063 in
  b  max   m   b  max  11.85 ksi
  s  max  n m  1.933 11.85 ksi   s  max  22.9 ksi
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Practice Problems

4.33, 4.34, 4.38, 4.38, 4.39, 4.42,

4.55, 4.57, 4.58

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Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry
• Stress due to eccentric loading found by superposing the
uniform stress due to a centric load and linear stress
distribution due a pure bending moment
 x    x  centric    x  bending
P My
 
• Eccentric loading A I
FP • Validity requires stresses below proportional limit, deformations
M  Pd have negligible effect on geometry, and stresses not evaluated
near points of load application.

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Example 4.07
An open-link chain is obtained by
bending low-carbon steel rods into the
shape shown. For 160 lb load,
determine (a) maximum tensile and
compressive stresses, (b) distance
between section centroid and neutral
axis
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SOLUTION:
• Find the equivalent centric load and
bending moment
• Superpose the uniform stress due to
the centric load and the linear stress
due to the bending moment.
• Evaluate the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses at the inner
and outer edges, respectively, of the
superposed stress distribution.
• Find the neutral axis by
determining the location where the
normal stress is zero.
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Example 4.07
• Normal stress due to a
centric load
A  c 2    0.25 in  2
 0.1963 in 2
P 160 lb
0  
A 0.1963 in 2
 815 psi

• Equivalent centric load • Normal stress due to

and bending moment bending moment
P  160 lb I  14 c 4  14   0.25 4
M  Pd  160 lb  0.6 in 
 3.068  103 in 4
 104 lb  in
Mc 104 lb  in  0.25 in 
m  
I .068  103 in 4
 8475 psi

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Example 4.07

• Maximum tensile and compressive • Neutral axis location

stresses P My0
t  0 m 0 
A I
 815  8475  t  9260 psi
P I 3.068 103 in 4
y0    815 psi 
c  0  m AM 105 lb  in
 815  8475  c  7660 psi
y0  0.0240 in

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Sample Problem 4.8
The largest allowable stresses for the cast
iron link are 30 MPa in tension and 120
MPa in compression. Determine the largest
force P which can be applied to the link.

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent centric load and
bending moment.
• Superpose the stress due to a centric
load and the stress due to bending.
• Evaluate the critical loads for the allowable
From Sample Problem 2.4, tensile and compressive stresses.
A  3 103 m 2
• The largest allowable load is the smallest
Y  0.038 m of the two critical loads.
I  868  109 m 4

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Sample Problem 4.8
• Determine an equivalent centric and bending loads.
d  0.038  0.010  0.028 m
P  centric load
M  Pd  0.028 P  bending moment

• Superpose stresses due to centric and bending loads

A  
P Mc A
 
P

 0.028 P  0.022  377 P
A I 3  103 868  109
P Mc A
B    
P

 0.028 P  0.022  1559 P
A I 3  103 868 109

• Evaluate critical loads for allowable stresses.

 A  377 P  30 MPa P  79.6 kN
 B  1559 P  120 MPa P  79.6 kN

• The largest allowable load P  77.0 kN

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Unsymmetric Bending
• Analysis of pure bending has been limited
to members subjected to bending couples
acting in a plane of symmetry.

• Members remain symmetric and bend in

the plane of symmetry.

• The neutral axis of the cross section

coincides with the axis of the couple

• Will now consider situations in which the

bending couples do not act in a plane of
symmetry.

• Cannot assume that the member will bend

in the plane of the couples.

• In general, the neutral axis of the section

will not coincide with the axis of the couple.
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Unsymmetric Bending
• 0  Fx    x dA      m dA
y
 c 
or 0   y dA

neutral axis passes through centroid

 y 
Wish to determine the conditions under • M  M z       m dA
y
 c 
which the neutral axis of a cross section σ I
of arbitrary shape coincides with the or M  m I  I z  moment of inertia
c
axis of the couple as shown. defines stress distribution
• The resultant force and moment
• 0  M y   z x dA   z   m dA
from the distribution of y
elementary forces in the section  c 
must satisfy or 0   yz dA  I yz  product of inertia

Fx  0  M y M z  M  applied couple couple vector must be directed along

a principal centroidal axis

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Unsymmetric Bending
Superposition is applied to determine stresses in
the most general case of unsymmetric bending.
• Resolve the couple vector into components along
the principle centroidal axes.
M z  M cos M y  M sin 

• Superpose the component stress distributions

Mzy Myy
x   
Iz Iy

• Along the neutral axis,

x  0  
Mzy Myy
 
 M cos  y   M sin   y
Iz Iy Iz Iy
y Iz
tan    tan 
z Iy

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Example 4.08
SOLUTION:
• Resolve the couple vector into
components along the principle
centroidal axes and calculate the
corresponding maximum stresses.
M z  M cos M y  M sin 

• Combine the stresses from the

component stress distributions.
Mzy Myy
x   
A 1600 lb-in couple is applied to a Iz Iy
rectangular wooden beam in a plane
• Determine the angle of the neutral
forming an angle of 30 deg. with the
axis.
vertical. Determine (a) the maximum y Iz
stress in the beam, (b) the angle that the tan    tan 
z Iy
neutral axis forms with the horizontal
plane.
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Example 4.08
• Resolve the couple vector into components and calculate
the corresponding maximum stresses.
M z  1600 lb  in  cos 30  1386 lb  in
M y  1600 lb  in  sin 30  800 lb  in
1 1.5 in  3.5 in  3  5.359 in 4
I z  12
1  3.5 in 1.5 in  3  0.9844 in 4
I y  12
The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AB
M z y 1386 lb  in 1.75 in 
1   4
 452.6 psi
Iz 5.359 in
The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AD

2 
M yz

 800 lb  in  0.75 in   609.5 psi
Iy 4
0.9844 in

• The largest tensile stress due to the combined loading

occurs at A.
 max   1   2  452.6  609.5  max  1062 psi

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Example 4.08

• Determine the angle of the neutral axis.

Iz 5.359 in 4
tan   tan   4
tan 30
Iy 0.9844 in
 3.143

  72.4o

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General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading
• Consider a straight member subject to equal
and opposite eccentric forces.

• The eccentric force is equivalent to the system

of a centric force and two couples.
P  centric force
M y  Pa M z  Pb

• By the principle of superposition, the

combined stress distribution is
P Mz y M yz
x   
A Iz Iy

• If the neutral axis lies on the section, it may

be found from
Mz My P
y z
Iz Iy A

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