Overview

• Fire Dynamics • Ignition

• Heat Transfer • Flames
• Fire Chemistry • Flame Spread
• Products of Combustion • Fire Growth
• Fire Hazards: Toxic Gases • Air Entrainment &
and Heat Plumes
• Fuels • Compartment Fires
• Summary

Fire-2
 Enabling Objectives
The students will:
• Define and explain basic fire chemistry
terminology
• Define and explain the behavior of fire
• Apply learned fire dynamic skills to fire
investigations

Fire-3
FIRE DYNAMICS

Fire-4
 What Is Fire Dynamics
• Fire dynamics is the scientific study of fire
behavior (e.g., ignition, flames, flame spread,
fire growth, extinguishment)
• It combines physics, chemistry, mathematics,
and engineering principles (heat transfer,
fluid dynamics, thermodynamics)

Fire-5
 Fire Dynamics and the
Fire Investigator
• Fire investigators consider fire dynamics
every day, although they may not be using
the equations or the terminology in the
field
• They look at fire patterns to try to
determine such things as the fire origin,
what fuels were involved, and how quickly
the fire spread
Fire-6
 Fire Investigation:
Art vs. Science

Art Science
Emphasis

1970' s 1980' s 1990' s 2000'' s

Fire-7
HEAT TRANSFER

Fire-8
 What is Temperature
• It expresses the degree of
molecular activity relative to
some reference point (e.g.,
freezing point of water)
• “Hotter” objects have molecules
that move faster than “colder”
objects
• Temperature is typically represented by the
symbol T

Fire-9
 Relative Temperature Scales
• Relative temperature scales are
based on the freezing point and
boiling point of water
• Metric (SI)
– Celsius (°C)
°C = (°F – 32)/1.8
• US (English)
–Fahrenheit (°F)
°F = (1.8)(°C) + 32
Fire-10
Absolute Temperature Scales
• Absolute temperature scales
are based on the temperature
at which molecular activity
ceases (0 K or 0°R)
• Metric (SI)
– Kelvin (K)
K = °C + 273
• US (English)
– Rankin (°R)
°R = °F + 460 Fire-11
 What is Heat
• Heat is not the same as
temperature
• Heat is a form of energy that
results from the random
motion of molecules

• It is the amount of energy required to maintain or

change the temperature of an object
• Heat is typically represented by the symbol Q

Fire-12
 Units of Heat Energy
• Metric (SI)
– Joule (J)
– Calorie (cal) = 4 J
• US (English)
– British thermal units (Btu)
• 1 Btu = 1055 J ≈ 1 kJ
• 1 Btu = 252 cal

Fire-13
 What is Heat Transfer
• Energy that is transferred
between objects due to a
temperature difference
• Heat is always
transferred from hotter
objects to colder objects
• Heat transfer is typically
represented
. by the
symbol q, where the dot ˙
indicates per unit time
Fire-14
 Units of Heat Transfer Rate
• Rate of Heat Transfer = Energy per unit time
• Metric (SI)
– Watts (W) = Joule per second (J/s)
– kilowatts (kW) = 1000 W
• US (English)
– British thermal units per hour (Btu/hr)

Fire-15
 Heat Flux
• Heat flux is the rate of heat transfer to a defined
area
.
• It is typically represented by symbol q", where the
double prime " indicates per unit area and the
dot ˙ indicates per unit time

.
q"
Distance

Distance

Fire-16
 Units of Heat Flux
• Heat flux = energy per unit time per unit area
• Metric (SI)
– Watts per square meter (W/m2)
– kilowatts per square meter (kW/m2)
• US (English)
– British thermal units per hour per
square feet (Btu/hr-ft2)

Fire-17
 Heat Transfer and Material
Phase Change
• Heating an object causes its molecules to
vibrate faster
• If enough heat is added to the object, the
vibrations are strong enough to break the
bonds of neighboring molecules
– Solids chemically decompose or melt
and become liquid
– Liquids evaporate and become gases
Fire-18
 Fire and Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is a major factor in fires and
has an effect on the following:
– Ignition
– Growth
– Spread
– Decay
– Extinction

Fire-19
 Modes of Heat Transfer
• Conduction
– through a solid material
• Convection
– between a fluid or gas and a solid
surface
• Radiation
– by electromagnetic waves through open
space

Fire-20
 Modes of Heat Transfer

CONDUCTION
Heat transfer
through wall CONVECTION
Heat transfer from
air to wall

RADIATION
Heat transfer from
flame and smoke to
surroundings
Fire-21
Conduction Heat Transfer
k
Heat transfer
L through a solid
Tcold Thot

.″
q = k (Thot – Tcold)
L

.
q
Fire-22
Heat Conduction and Fire Spread
• Under fire conditions, heat conduction can
play a role in propagating the fire
• Heat conducted through a wall or along a
pipe or beam can cause ignition of
combustibles in contact with heated object

Fire-23
Heat Conduction and Fire Spread

Steam Pipe
Steam Pipe

Fire-24
Heat Conduction and Fire Spread

Pipe

Cardboard
Boxes
Fire-25
Brick Wall
Heat Conduction and Ignition
• Conduction of heat into a material is an
important aspect of ignition
• The surface temperature of the fuel must be
raised sufficiently to release enough fuel vapors
for combustion to occur
• When a fuel is heated, heat is conducted away
from the fuels surface to its interior
• A fuels ability to dissipate the heat away from its
surface will affect how easily the fuel is ignited
Fire-26
 Convection Heat Transfer
.
q″
Thot
Tcold

Heat transfer from .″

hot gas to cooler q = h(Thot – Tcold)
wall surface

Fire-27
 Types of Convection
• Natural (free) Convection
– buoyancy induced flow is
caused by density (air
temperature) difference

• Forced Convection
– flow induced by external
source

Fire-28
 Convection and Fire Spread
• Early in a fire, convection is important in
– moving hot gases from the fire to the
upper portion of the room of fire origin
– transporting the hot gases to other areas
outside of the room of fire origin

Fire-29
 Radiant Heat Transfer

Heat transfer from .″

flame to a target q = FεσT4
.
q″
F
Electromagnetic
Target waves are emitted
ε in all directions

T Fire-30
 Radiation & Temperature
• Radiant heat transfer is proportional to the
absolute temperature (K or °R) of an object
raised to the 4th power
• Doubling the absolute temperature (K or
°R) of an object results in a 16-fold increase
in radiation heat transfer from the object

Fire-31
Radiation and Temperature
175

150
Heat Flux (kW/m )

125
2

100

75

50

25

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature (K) = 273 + oC

Fire-32
 Radiation and Line of Sight
• Target must be in view of radiating object to
receive radiation

Target

Fire-33
 Other Factors that Affect
Radiation Heat Transfer
• Distance between radiating object and target
• Size of both the radiating object and target
• Orientation of both the radiating object and
target
Target

Fire-34
 Radiation and Smoke

• Dirty smoke consists of

millions of tiny, dark,
solid particles each acting
as a radiator

• The dirtier or darker the

smoke is in a fire, the
more heat it will transfer,
at equal temperatures
Fire-35
 Radiation from Flames
• A fraction of the total energy released
from the flame is released as radiation

Typical radiative energy fraction values

Fuel Radiative Energy

fire diameter > 0.5 m (1.6 ft) Fraction
Methanol, methane 15 - 20%
Butane, benzene, wood cribs 20 – 40%
Hexane, gasoline, polystyrene 40 – 60%
Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 59 Fire-36
Relative Radiant Heat Fluxes
Radiant
Observed Effect
Heat Flux
kW/m²
1 Nominal solar constant on a clear day

5 Pain after 13 seconds of skin exposure, blisters in 29 seconds

10 Pain after 5 seconds of skin exposure, blisters in 10 seconds

12.5 Volatiles from wood may be ignited after prolonged exposure

15 Pain after 3 seconds of skin exposure, blisters in 6 seconds

20 Heat flux on a residential room floor at the onset of flashover

Pain after 2 seconds of skin exposure, blisters in 4 seconds

29 Wood ignites spontaneously after prolonged exposure

52 Fiberboard ignites spontaneously in 5 seconds

170 Max heat flux currently measured in post flashover compartment

Fire-37
 Direct Flame Contact
• Not a different mode of heat
transfer
• Combination of convection
and radiation heat transfer

Fire-38
FIRE CHEMISTRY

Fire-39
 What is Fire
• A rapid oxidation process,
which is a chemical reaction
resulting in the evolution of
light and heat in varying
intensities (NFPA 921, 2008)
• Fire is a form of combustion

Fire-40
 Components Required for Fire

• Fuel
• Oxidizing Agent
• Heat (energy)
• Uninhibited chemical reaction
(i.e., sustained chemical reactions)

Fire-41
 Fire Triangle

All three legs of "The Fire Triangle"

must be present for a fire to exist.
Fire-42
Fire Tetrahedron

Fire-43
Solids and Liquids do not Burn!
• Liquids evaporate into a vapor that burn
when mixed with the proper amount of air
• Most solids chemically decompose
(pyrolyze) into gases that burn when mixed
with the proper amount of air

Fire-44
 Fuel Vapor Generation
• Sublimation
– Solid material changes directly into a vapor
(naphthalene, methenamine)
• Melting
– No change in chemical structure, liquids change back
to a solid when cooled (candle wax)
• Evaporation
– No change in chemical structure, gases change back to
a liquid when cooled
• Thermal Decomposition
– Irreversible changes to the structure of the material
due to the effects of heat (pyrolysis)
Fire-45
 Fuel Vapor Generation

Drysdale, D.D., An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Fire,” 2nd ed., 1998

Fire-46
Physical Process of Fire

Fire-47
Basic Chemical Reactions

Reactants → Products

Fire-48
 Basic Combustion Reactions

FUEL + OXIDIZER
Energy
COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS
Carbon Air Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Oxygen Water
Solid Oxidizers
Carbon Monoxide
Smoke/Particulates
Sulfur Dioxide
Nitrous Oxide
etc.
Fire-49
 Combustion Reaction
C + O2  CO2

O2 Light
CO2

Heat
C
Ignition
Source Fire-50
 Combustion Reaction
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
O2 Light

O2
CO2

H2O

Heat
CH4 H2O
Ignition
Source Fire-51
Combustion Reactions with Air
• Air ≈ 21% Oxygen & 79% Nitrogen
• Only oxygen reacts with fuel
• Nitrogen absorbs some of the heat
produced by the combustion reaction
– higher flame temperatures
obtained in pure oxygen environment

Fire-52
 Stoichiometric Combustion
• Optimum ratio of fuel and air mixture

FUEL OXYGEN

• No excess fuel or air remains after combustion

• Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels results only in
the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water vapor (H2O)
Fire-53
 Fuel Limited Fires
• Also known as over ventilated fires
• More oxygen supplied to the fire than required to
react with all of the fuel
FUEL

OXYGEN

• In general, all fires start out as fuel limited fires

Fire-54
 Ventilation Limited Fires
• Also known as under ventilated fires
• Insufficient oxygen to react with all of the fuel
(more fuel than air), which results in the
incomplete combustion of the fuel
OXYGEN

FUEL

• Fires may transition from fuel limited to

ventilation limited Fire-55
Oxygen Required for Combustion

• Flaming fires require at least 14% to 16%

oxygen
• Smoldering combustion requires as little as
8% oxygen

Fire-56
PRODUCTS OF
COMBUSTION

Fire-57
 Combustion Products
• Heat
• Gases
• Solid particles Smoke
• Liquid aerosols Visible
Smoke

Fire-58
 Heat
Convection

Radiation

Fuel
Fire-59
 Gases
• Primary
– carbon dioxide (CO2)
– water vapor (H2O)
• Others
– carbon monoxide (CO)
– hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
– formaldehyde (CH2O)
– etc.

Fire-60
 Solids and Liquids
• Solids
– Ash (non-combustible material)
– Soot (particles of carbon)
• Liquids
– Aerosols (complex organic
molecules resulting from pyrolysis
products)
– Small tarry droplets

Fire-61
 FIRE HAZARDS:
TOXIC GASES AND
THERMAL EFFECTS

Fire-62
Why Knowledge of Toxic Gases and
Thermal Effects are Important
• Information may be used to establish
– when the victim died during the fire
– the location of the victim or suspect
during the fire
– the type/location of the fire
– credibility of a suspects story
– Origin and Cause
Fire-63
 Toxic Gases
• Asphyxiant Gases
– cause loss of alertness (intoxication),
mental function, psychomotor ability
• Irritant gases
– can be painful to eyes and to the
respiratory system

Fire-64
 Asphyxiant Gases
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Oxygen depleted air

Fire-65
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• CO is produced in all fires that contain
hydrocarbon fuels
• Studies have shown that most fire victims (75%
to 80%) die from CO poisoning
• CO binds with the hemoglobin in the blood to
form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb)
– Oxygen normally combines with
hemoglobin and is carried to the tissues
– CO has an affinity for hemoglobin
approximately 200 times more than O2
Fire-66
 Carbon Monoxide (cont.)
• COHb level is a factor of many variables,
including
– CO concentration
– Exposure time
– Volume and rate of breathing
– Medical issues (respiratory, cardiac)
• COHb is relatively stable and can be measured in
the blood long after death
• COHb level will be reduced, if the victim was
administered oxygen prior to measurement
Fire-67
 Carbon Monoxide (cont.)
• Baseline COHb Levels
– Non smokers: 0.5 to 1.5%
– Smokers: 4 to 10%
• COHb Levels in Fire Victims
– Ranges from less than 20% to more
than 90%
– Greater than 50% is generally assumed to be
fatal, but this value depends on each person

Fire-68
 Carbon Monoxide (cont.)
• Most fire victims that die from smoke inhalation
are remote from the room of fire origin
– In general, fires do not produce lethal levels
of CO, until post-flashover conditions
– Victims in the room of fire origin generally
die from thermal effects, where the upper
gas layer temperature can reach 600°C
(1100°F) prior to flashover

Fire-69
 Carbon Monoxide (cont.)
• Smoldering fires can produce lethal levels of CO
– In general, long time (> 1 hr) required to
buildup lethal levels of CO in the room, due
to the slow consumption of the fuel and
dilution of the CO with air
– Victim may be exposed to higher CO
levels in a shorter time frame, if they are
near the fire and inhale relatively undiluted
CO

Fire-70
 Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
• Produced during the combustion of nitrogen
containing fuels, such as wool, polyurethanes,
nylon, silk, synthetic rubbers
• HCN is approximately 25 times more toxic than
CO
• Difficult to distinguish affects due to CO and HCN
• Not typically measured during autopsy
• HCN level may increase during storage of the
sample
Fire-71
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
CO2 (%) Effect
0.04 Normal Air
0.5 Safe Limit, prolonged exposure
1.8 to 2.0 30-50% increase in ventilation rate
2.5 to 3.0 100% increase in ventilation rate
4 300% increase in ventilation rate
5 Dizziness, poisoning symptoms, > 30 minutes
7 to 9 Unconscious, in 15 minutes
10 to 30 Unconscious, in < 10 minutes, followed by death

Table 8-4; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 162

Fire-72
 Oxygen Depleted Air
Oxygen (%) Effect

15 to 21 None

12 to 15 Fatigue

8 to 12 Dizziness, nausea, possible paralysis

6 to 8 Prostration, asphyxiation, collapse

3 to 6 Unconscious in minutes, possible death

0 to 3 Unconscious in seconds, death likely

Table 8-2; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 160

Fire-73
 Irritant Gases
• Irritant gases include
– Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
– Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
– Hydrogen bromide (HBr)
– Formaldehyde (CH2O)
• Not likely to be fatal during inhalation, but post
exposure fatality is more likely, due to lung edema
and inflammation after the fire

Fire-74
 Heat Exposure
• There are three basic ways in which
exposure of fire victims to heat may lead to
incapacitation and death
– Heat stroke (hyperthermia)
– Body surface burns
– Respiratory tract burns

Fire-75
 Hyperthermia
• Hyperthermia occurs when the body’s core
temperature reaches 41°C (~ 106°F)
• Death can occur in a few minutes if the body’s
core temperature reaches 43°C (109°F)
Type Exposure Time Exposure Temperature

Simple > 15 min 80°C to 120°C 176°F to 248°F

Acute < 15 min > 120°C > 248°F

Fire-76
Burns Due to Conduction

(SFPE HB FPE, 3rd edition, 2003: pg 2-126) Fire-77

Burns Due to Radiation

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 23.7.2.4) Fire-78

 Respiratory Tract Burns
• Difficult to distinguish the effects of thermal
inhalation burns from edema and
inflammation caused by chemical irritants in
smoke
• Thermal inhalation burns are always
accompanied by external facial burns
• Highly dependent on the humidity of hot gases
– Inhalation of hotter gases is possible, if the
gas is dry
Fire-79
FUELS

Fire-80
 Types of Fuels
• Organic Fuels (hydrocarbon)
– typically contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
– examples include wood, plastics,
gasoline, natural gas
• Inorganic Fuels
– typically do not contain carbon
– examples include magnesium and
sodium
Fire-81
 Form of Fuel
• Fuels exists in different forms
– Solids
– Liquids
– Gases
• The state (solid, liquid, vapor) of a given
material depends on temperature and
pressure

Fire-82
 Geometry of Fuel
• Geometry of fuel affects how the fuel burns
– Thickness (thin or thick)
– Density (how tight the fuel is packed)
– Shape (surface to mass ratio)

Fire-83
 Solid Fuels
• Solids
– Woods
– Plastics
– Cloth
– Synthetics
– Metals

Fire-84
 Liquid Fuels
• Liquids
– Gasoline
– Kerosene
– Diesel
– Cooking oil
– Molten solids
– Solvents
– Thinners

Fire-85
 Gaseous Fuels
• Gases
– Propane
– Methane
– Carbon Monoxide
– Hydrogen
– Acetylene
• Vapors produced by solid
fuels or liquids fuels
Fire-86
 Fuel Load
• A measure of the total heat
available if all the combustible
contents in a room are burned
• Specified as an equivalent
weight in wood
• Not used as much today, as it
does not provide a true measure
of fire hazard potential in room
(need heat release rate
information)
Fire-87
OXYGEN (OXIDIZER)

Fire-88
 OXYGEN (OXIDIZERS)
• Air
– 21 percent oxygen
– 79 percent nitrogen and others
• Enriched oxygen
– Medical environments
– Industrial
• Solid oxidizers
– materials contain oxygen
– chemicals: nitrates, chlorates,
sulfates, phosphates, etc
Fire-89
IGNITION

Fire-90
 Ignition
• Ignition Temperature
– Minimum temperature required
to cause combustion
• Types of Ignition
– Piloted ignition
– Autoignition

Fire-91
 Piloted Ignition
• External ignition
source ignites
flammable vapors
• Types
– small flames
– sparks
– hot surfaces

Fire-92
 Autoignition

• Initiation of combustion
by heat, without direct
contact with a flame,
spark, or hot surface

• Autoignition
Temperature (AIT)

Fire-93
 Competent Ignition Source
• A competent ignition source will have
– sufficient temperature
– sufficient energy
– will be in contact with the fuel long
enough to raise it to the fuels ignition
temperature
(NFPA 921, Section 18.3.2)

Fire-94
 Example: A Match as an
Ignition Source
• A single match can ignite a toothpick, but it
cannot ignite a 2 x 4 piece of wood, even though
– both objects have the same material properties
– the flame temperature is above the ignition
temperature of the wood
• In addition, the match can only ignite the
toothpick, if the flame is held in contact with the
toothpick long enough

Fire-95
 Ignition of Gases
• Gases require the least
amount of energy to ignite,
because they are already in
a gaseous form
• Fuel gases and air mixture
must be within the
flammability limits of the
fuel
Fire-96
 Mixing and Proportioning

• Two legs of the fire triangle are

– Fuel vapors
– Oxygen

Volume of Fuel Vapor

___________________
Fuel to Air Ratio =
Volume of Air

Fire-97
 Explosive Limits
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– Minimum concentration of fuel
vapors in air that will burn
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Maximum concentration of fuel
vapors in air that will burn
• Also referred to as the Flammability
Limits (LFL and UFL)
Fire-98
Flammability Range
100% Gas
0% Air
Too Rich

UEL

Flammability
Range

LEL
Too Lean
0% Gas
100% Air Fire-99
Flammability Range of Gases
100

90

80
Flammability Range (%)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Acetylene Hydrogen Carbon Methane Propane Butane Gasoline
Monoxide

Fire-100
 Ignition Energy for Gases
• Gases require less than 1 mJ of energy
to ignite
• Strong static shock is on the order of 1 J
or 1000 mJ
• Ignition energy must be applied in a
region of the vapors within the
flammable range to start the reaction

Fire-101
 Autoignition Temperature
of Gases
Fuel Autoignition Temperature
Gasoline 257°C to 280°C 462°F to 536°F
Acetylene 305°C 581°F
Hydrogen 400°C 752°F
Butane 405°C 761°F
Propane 450°C 842°F
Methane 540°C 1004°F
Carbon Monoxide 609°C 1128°F

All data except gasoline obtained from Table 2-3 in Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998 Fire-102
Gasoline data obtained from Table 25.3.1 in NFPA 921, 2008
 Ignition of Liquids
• The liquid must be at or above its flash point
temperature. If it isn't, enough heat must be
applied to vaporize enough fuel.

• Vapor/air mixture must be within flammability

limits

Flammability
Vapor/Air mixture Range

Liquid
Fire-103
 Flashpoint and Fire Point
• Flashpoint
– Lowest temperature of a liquid at which the
liquid gives off vapors at a sufficient rate to
support a momentary flame across its surface
• Firepoint
– Temperature at which burning of the
vaporizing liquid can be sustained

Fire-104
 Critical Temperatures for
Liquid Fuels
Fuel TFP (°C) TAuto (°C)
Propane -104°C -155°F 450 842°F
Gasoline ~ -45°C ~ -49°F ~ 371 ~700°F
Acrolein -26°C -15°F 235 455°F
Acetone -18°C -0.4°F 465 870°F
Methanol -12°C 10°F 385 725°F
Ethanol 13°C 55°F 363 685°F
Kerosene ~ 49°C 120°F ~ 260 ~500°F
M-Creosol 86°C 187°F 559 1038°F
Formaldehyde 93°C 199°F 430 806°F
Fire-105
Table 4-1; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 67
 Ignition of Solids
• Heat must be supplied to
decompose solid fuel into
fuel vapors
• Fuel vapor/air mixture
must be within
flammability limits

Fire-106
 Factors that Affect
Ignition of Solids
• Shape (surface to mass ratio)

• Density (how tight the fuel is

packed)

• Thickness (thick versus

thin materials)
Fire-107
Ignition Temperatures of Solids

Type of Ignition Ignition Temperature

Piloted ~ 270°C to 450°C ~ 518°F to 842°F

Autoignition ~ 400°C to 600°C ~ 752°F to 1112°F

Fire-108
 Thermal Inertia
• Thermal inertia (kρc) is a measure of how fast the
surface temperature of a material will rise
• It is a product of the materials thermal
conductivity (k), density (ρ), and specific heat (c)
k = material's ability to conduct heat

ρ = material’s density
c = material’s capacity to store heat

Fire-109
 Simplified Effects of kρc
Low kρc High kρc
Surface heats rapidly Surface heats slowly
Fast Ignition Slow Ignition
(example: foam) (example: metals)

• Materials with high thermal inertia (kρc)

require more energy to raise their surface
temperature

Fire-110
 Thermal Inertia
Material Thermal Inertia (kρc)
(kW2-s/m4-K2)
Copper 1300
Polyethylene 0.625
Gypsum Plaster 0.581
Oak 0.324
Yellow Pine 0.255
PVC 0.235
Polystyrene (rigid) 0.145
Polyurethane Foam 0.000952

Fire-111
 Thermally Thin Materials
• Thermally Thin Materials
– full thickness of the material is
at approximately the same
temperature during heating
– physical thickness of 1 to 2 mm
or less than 1/16 inch
– Example: paper, sheer window
treatments

Fire-112
 Thermally Thick Materials
• Thermally Thick Materials
– temperature varies throughout
material as item is being heated
– physical thickness greater than
2 mm or more than 1/16 inch
– Example: wood desk, stack of
papers

Fire-113
 Solid Ignition Time
• The ignition time of a solid is a function of
– method of heating (radiation,
conduction, convection)
– material properties (density, thermal
conductivity, specific heat)
– material thickness
– shape of material (surface to mass ratio)

Fire-114
Ignition Time and Heat Flux

Figure 4-4; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 70)

Fire-115
Radiant Heat Flux for Ignition
• Critical heat flux is the minimum radiant
heat flux required for piloted ignition
• For most materials, the critical radiant
heat flux is in the range of 10 kW/m2 to
20 kW/m2

Fire-116
 Ignition Time and Heat Flux
Critical Flux

Ignition Time (s)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 4-8; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 70) Fire-117
 Ignition Times
Typical Ignition Times of Thick Solids
Heat Flux Time Material
(kw/m2) (seconds)
10 300 Plexiglas, polyurethane
foam, acrylate carpet
20 70 Wool Carpet
150 Paper on gypsum board
250 Wood particleboard
30 5 Polyisocynurate foam
70 Wool/nylon carpet
150 Hardboard
Table 4-2; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 72)
Fire-118
 Dust Ignition
• Very small solid particles
• Typically occurs in unoccupied spaces,
due to the high concentration of particles
required
• Fuel gas/air mixture must be within
flammability limit
• Current research suggests that static
electricity causes ignition
Fire-119
FLAMES

Fire-120
 Flaming Combustion
• Flaming fires only occur in
the gas phase

• All solids and liquid fuels

must first pyrolyze and/or
vaporize to burn

• Fuel vapor and oxygen must

be in correct proportion to
burn
Fire-121
 Types of Flames
• Premixed Flames
– Fuel and oxidizer
are mixed prior to
combustion

• Diffusion Flames
– Fuel and air mix or
diffuse together at the
region combustion

Fire-122
 Bunsen Burner Experiment

• A Bunsen burner can

be used to illustrate
the difference between
a premixed flame and
Gas Flow Rate
a diffusion flame
Primary Adjustment
Air Inlet

Gas Inlet

Fire-123
 Bunsen Burner Experiment
• Premixed Flame
– Primary air inlet fully opened
– Gas and primary air mix prior
to ignition
– All gas and primary air react
(no excess air required to Air Inlet
complete combustion) Fully Open
– Short premixed flame of
turquoise-blue color Primary Air

Fuel

Fire-124
 Bunsen Burner Experiment
Outer Flame
• Partially Premixed Flame
– Primary air inlet partially
opened Secondary
– Gas and some primary air mix Air
prior to ignition Inner Flame
– Secondary air required to
complete combustion
– Longer inner flame of Air Inlet
turquoise-blue color Partially Open
surrounded by outer flame Primary
– Unused fuel burnt in outer Air
flame
Fuel
Fire-125
 Bunsen Burner Experiment
• Diffusion Flame
Secondary
– Primary air inlet closed
Air
– No mixing of gas and air prior
to ignition
– Secondary air required to
complete combustion
– Long yellow flame Primary Air
Inlet Closed

Fuel
Fire-126
 Bunsen Burner Experiment
1. Diffusion Flame
2. Partially Premixed
Flame
3. Partially Premixed
Flame (more
primary air than
flame #2)
4. Premixed Flame

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame)
Fire-127
 Premixed Flames
• Premixed flames can only burn if the fuel-
air mixture is between the LEL and UEL
• When the gas-air mixture is ignited, it
quickly propagates through the volume of
fuel-air mixture
– Deflagration
Flame velocity < speed of sound
– Detonation
Flame velocity > speed of sound
Fire-128
 Diffusion Flames
• Combustion occurs in a thin reaction zone,
where the unmixed fuel vapors and air
come together
• Diffusion flame burning is the ordinary
sustained burning mode in most fires
Reaction
Zone
Air
Air
Fuel
Vapor
Fire-129
 Types of Diffusion Flames
• Laminar
– Orderly, unfluctuating fluid
motion
• Turbulent
– Randomly fluctuating fluid
motion

Fire-130
Laminar and Turbulent
Diffusion Flames

Laminar Turbulent
Fire-131
 How Hot is the Fire
• Most common fuels have essentially the same
flame temperature, regardless of the type of fuel,
when burned in air

Fuel Flame Temperature

Gasoline 1026 °C 1879°F
Kerosene 990 °C 1814°F
Methanol 1200 °C 2192°F
Wood 1027 °C 1881°F

Fire-132
Flame Height Fluctuations

Fire-133
 Candle Experiment

• Classic experiments created in 19th

century by Michael Faraday
• Six lectures on “The Chemical
History of a Candle”
• Illustrates basic principles of flames
• Complete text of Michael Faraday’s
lecture available online:

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1860Faraday-candle.html
Fire-134
Fire-135
Fire-136
 Cross Section Of A
Candle Flame
Oxygen Oxygen

Light Fuel Gas Flame

Zone Zone

Oxygen Oxygen
Fire-137
 Temperatures in a Laminar
Diffusion Flame

Fire-139
(Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998)
OTHER TYPES OF
COMBUSTION

Fire-140
 Smoldering Combustion
• Reaction occurs on the solid surface and oxygen
diffuses to the surface
• Thermal decomposition step to create char
followed by solid phase burning of the char
produced

Fire-141
 Why is Smoldering
Combustion Important?
• Yields substantially more toxic compounds
than does flaming combustion (but more
slowly)
• It can be initiated by heat sources much too
weak to directly produce a flame
• Smoldering combustion may transition into
flaming combustion
Fire-142
 Smolder-to-Flaming
Transition Times

Kransy, J.F., Parker, W.J., and Babrauskas, V., Fire Behavior of Fire-143
Upholstered Furniture and Mattresses, (2001)
 Spontaneous Combustion
• Self-heating occurs when the fuel is unable to
dissipate heat generated by a chemical reaction
within the bulk of the fuel
• As the temperature of the fuel increases, it causes a
faster chemical reaction, eventually leading to
thermal runaway
• Ignition occurs when the temperature reaches the
ignition temperature of the material

Fire-144
Conditions Required for
Spontaneous Ignition

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.7.1.3.3) Fire-145

FLAME SPREAD

Fire-146
 Flame Spread
• The process in which the perimeter of the
fire grows
• Gravitational (buoyancy) and wind effects
are important
• Flame spread can be classified as
– Concurrent flame spread
– Counterflow flame spread

Fire-147
 Concurrent Flame Spread
• Also known as wind-aided flame spread
• Flame spread direction is the same as the
gas flow or wind direction
• Generally quite rapid as a result of the
direct contact of the flame with the fuel
ahead of the flame front

Fire-148
(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.8.1.2)
 Concurrent Flame Spread

FIGURE 5.8.1, NFPA 921, 2008 FIGURE 5.8.1.3, NFPA 921, 2008
Fire-149
(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.8.1.2)
 Counterflow Flame Spread
• Also known as opposed flow flame spread
• Flame spread direction is counter to or
opposed to the gas flow
• Generally slow as a result of the limited
ability of the flame to heat the fuel ahead
of the flame front

Fire-150
(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.8.1.1)
 Counterflow Flame Spread

FIGURE 5.8.1, NFPA 921, 2008 FIGURE 5.8.1.3, NFPA 921, 2008

Fire-151
 Typical Flame Spread Rates
Flame Spread Rate (cm/sec) Rate (ft/min)

Smoldering 0.001 to 0.01 0.002 to 0.02

Lateral or downward spread on thick 0.1 0.2

solids

Upward spread on thick solids 1 to 100 2 to 200

Horizontal spread on liquids 10 to 100 20 to 200

Premixed Flames
deflagration 10 to 100 20 to 200
detonations 100,000 200,000

(Table 5.2; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998, : pg 97)

Fire-152
FIRE GROWTH

Fire-153
 Heat Release Rate
• Heat Release Rate (HRR) is the amount of
heat energy released over time
• The “size” of a fire is often specified by the
heat release rate
• It is single most important factor in
characterizing fire behavior
.
• HRR represented by the symbol Q

Fire-154
 Units of Heat Release Rate
• Measured in heat energy per unit time
• Metric (SI)
• Watts (W) = J/s
• kilowatts (kW) = 1000 W
• megawatts (MW) = 1000 kW
• US (English)
• British thermal units per hour (Btu/hr)
• 3412 Btu/hr = 1 kW
Fire-155
 Units of Heat Release Rate
• In the U.S., SI units are
generally used to specify fire
size (e.g., 1 MW fire)
• U.S. units of heat release rate
are primarily used with gas
appliances (e.g., 5000 Btu/hr
burner)
• Note: some gas appliances in
the U.S. use “Btu” instead of
“Btu/hr”
Fire-156
Heat Release Rate Equation
. .
Q = Hc m
.
Q = heat release rate (kW)
Hc = heat of combustion of fuel
(kJ/g)
.
m = mass loss rate of fuel (g/s)

Fire-157
 Heat of Combustion
Fuel Heat of Combustion (kJ/g)
Methane 50.0
Propane 46.5
n-Butane 45.7
Gasoline 43.7
Polypropylene 43.3
Kerosene 43.2
Polystyrene 39.8
Nylon 6/6 29.6
PVC 16.4
Wood 13-15
Carbon Monoxide 10.1
Fire-158
(Table 6-3; Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behavior, 1998: pg 111)
 Heat Release Rate Examples
0.05 to 0.07 kW
Heat Release
100 kW
Rate
(50 to 70 W)

1,000 kW 10,000 kW
(1 MW) (10 MW)

Fire-159
 Representative Peak HRR

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.6.3.1) Fire-160

Idealized Heat Release Rate Curve

Fire-161
 Fire Growth and t-Squared Fires
• The fire growth rate of some fuel items can be
approximated as varying proportionally to the
square of time (t2)
• t-squared fires are classified based on their growth
rate (slow, medium, fast, ultrafast)
2 Fire Classification t1
t
Q  1055 kW    Slow 600 s

 t1 
Medium 300 s
Fast 150 s
Ultrafast 75 s
Fire-162
 t-Squared Fires

Figure C.2(c) Relation of t-Squared Fire to some Fire Tests

(NFPA 92B, 2005: Annex C t-Squared Fires Fire-163
AIR ENTRAINMENT
& PLUMES

Fire-164
 Buoyancy Effect

Hot Gases

Cool Air FUEL Cool Air

Fire-165
 Fire in the Open

Plume

Air
Entrainment
Zone
Flame
Zone
Fuel
Fire-166
 Fire Under a Ceiling

Ceiling Jet Upper

Layer
Plume

Air
Entrainment
Flame Zone
Zone
Fuel
Fire-167
 Temperatures In Plumes

TCL
Height

Tambient

Cool air is entrained

into the hot plume,
cooling the smoke as
it rises

TCL Fuel Fire-168

 Air Entrainment and Fire
Location
• Location of the fire affects air entrainment
and flame length
– Wall/Corner
– Height relative to ceiling

Fire-169
Effect of Fire Location on
Air Entrainment

Wall

Corner

Center

Top View of Compartment Fire-170

 Effect of Fire Location on
Flame Length

Center Wall Corner

Fire-171
Effect of Fire Height on
Air Entrainment

Fire-172
COMPARTMENT FIRES

Fire-173
 Factors That Affect Fire Growth
• Fuel (type, quantity, configuration)
• Ventilation
• Volume of the Enclosure
• Ceiling Height
• Location of fuel relative to walls and
corners

Fire-174
 Phases of Fire Development
• Compartment fires generally follow the
same basic growth processes
– Ignition
– Early Compartment Fire Development
– Upper Layer Development
– Preflashover Conditions
– Flashover Conditions
– Postflashover or Full Room Involvement

Fire-175
 Early Compartment Fire
Development

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.10.2.1)

Fire-176
 Upper Layer Development

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.10.2.3)

Fire-177
 Preflashover Conditions

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.10.2.4)

Fire-178
 Flashover Conditions

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.10.2.6)

Fire-179
 Postflashover Conditions

(NFPA 921, 2008: Section 5.10.2.7)

Fire-180
 Flashover
• Transition from “a fire in a room” to “a
room on fire”
• Various flashover definitions
– 500°C to 600°C (930 °F to 1100°F) upper
layer gas temperature
– 20 kW/m2 incident heat flux to the
compartment floor
– “Everything that can burn is burning”
– “Flames out the door”
Fire-181
Logic Diagram for Flashover in
Compartment
.
Can First Item Ignite given Q ?fl

No Yes

Can Fire Spread to Adjacent Item?

No Yes

Fire Self Can Combined

Extinguishes .
Items Ignite
Given Qfl?
No Yes
FLASHOVER
Fire-182
 Estimating Flame Height

Q L

L  1.02 D  0.235Q 25
.
Q in kW Fire-183
L, D in meters
 Estimating Heat Release

Q L

D
5
.  L  1.02 D  2
. Q 
Q in kW  0.235  Fire-184
L, D in meters
Fire on Wood Floor

Fire-185
Fire on Wood Floor

D Fire-186
 Estimating Flame
Height for real fires

Fire-187
 Estimating Flame
Height for real fires

L
L

Fire-188
 Calculating Heat Release Rate
from Flame Height

L  1.02D  0.235Q 25

5
 L  1.02 D  2
Q 
 0.235 

Fire-189
SFPE Handbook, p 2-3 Test Time 42 seconds, 1071_13543.JPG
 Calculating Heat Release Rate
from Flame Height
5
 L  1.02 D  2
Q 
 0.235 
5
 0.8  1.02  0.5  2
Q 
 0.235 

Q  73 kW

Fire-190
SFPE Handbook, p 2-3 Test Time 42 seconds, 1071_13543.JPG
 For A 1,800 kW Fire of 2 Meter
Diameter, What is The Flame Height?

Zflame = 0.23(HRR)2/5 – 1.02(D)

Zflame = 0.23(1800)2/5 – 1.02(2)
Zflame = 0.23(20) – 2.04
Zflame = 4.61 – 2.04 = 2.57 meters
Zflame = 2.57 m x 3.3 ft/m = 8.5 feet
Fire-191
Minimum Fire To Cause Flashover

Ao = howo
. wo
Q - kW
width,
ho
height of
vent in
meters .
Q = (750 Ao) (ho)0.5
Fire-192
 Minimum Fire To Cause Flashover
Alternative Formula Where Room Dimensions are Known
(Thomas Flashover Correlation)

Ao = howo
wo
Aw = Area of walls,
ceiling & floor (m2)
.
Q - kilowatts
ho
Width & Height
of vent in meters
.
Q = (378Ao) (ho)0.5 + 7.8 Aw
Fire-193
 SUMMARY
Now you should have the basic
understanding of the following items as
they relate to fires:
Heat Transfer Ignition
Fire Chemistry Flame Spread
Products of Combustion Fire Growth
Fuels Plumes & Ceiling Jets
Flames Compartment Fires

Fire-194