CIVE1140

Infrastructure
Management

Dr David Law

Room 12.13.31
Deterioration Mechanisms

RMIT University 2
Corrosion/Deterioration

RMIT University©2011 Information Technology Services 3

Failures

RMIT University 4
Introduction

• Materials
– Concrete
– Steel
– Timber

• Aggressive Environments
– Types of Attack
– Deterioration Mechanisms

5 RMIT University
Materials

• Material Types
– Concrete
– Reinforced Concrete
– Unreinforced Concrete
– Steel
– Mild Steel
– Stainless Steel
– Cast Iron
– Wrought Iron

6 RMIT University
Materials

–Timber
– Hard Wood
– Soft Wood
– Treated and Untreated
–Plastics
– Fibre reinforcement
– Coatings

7 RMIT University
Building Sustainable Structures

• How long should a building last ?

• A – 5 years
• B – 10 years
• C – 20 years
• D – 50 years
• E – 100 years
• F – For ever

8 RMIT University
Building Sustainable Structures
• A – 5 years
– Temporary structures, Short term repairs

• B – 10 years
– Medium term repairs

• C – 20 years
– Roads (20-25 year design life)

• D – 50 years
– Most infrastructure projects

• E – 100 years
– Major/Critical infrastructure projects

• F – For ever
– Heritage structures

9 RMIT University
 What Determines the Life of a Structure?

• Design
– concept and parameters/assumptions

• Original Construction Quality

– design, materials, quality control

• Environment
– general and local
• In-service usage
• Maintenance

10 RMIT University
Durability Issues

• Change in environmental
exposure
– Acid Rain
– Change in water table
– Building of factories
– Increased traffic
– Spills and pollution of rivers

11 RMIT University
Durability Costs

• USA
– 15% of all (583,000) bridges structurally deficient
– Estimated repair costs $8.3 billion per year
– Estimated total cost due to corrosion was $276 billion annually
– Pipelines, buildings etc
– Estimated repair and maintenance budget for developed
countries is 3-5% GDP
– includes Australia
– 2 tonnes of concrete for every person in the world

12 RMIT University
Aggressive Environments

• Chloride Exposure
– Marine Environments
– De-icing salts
– Admixtures
• Pollution
– CO2, NOx , SOx
• High Temperatures
– UV exposure
• Aggressive Soils/Sewerage
– Sulphates

13 RMIT University
Chloride Attack

RMIT University 14
Chloride Attack

Cl -

Cl -

Cl -
Cl -
Cl - Cl -
Cl -
Cl -
Cl -
Cl -
Cl - Cl -
Cl -

Cl -
Cl -
Cl - Cl -
Cl -

Cl -
Cl -
Cl -
Cl -
Cl -

Cl -
Cl -

Cl -

15 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

• In concrete steel is passive

• Oxide film formed on steel
due to high pH
• pH in range 12-14
• Pore water in concrete
acts as electrolyte
– Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+
– OH-

16 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

• Passive film is broken

down
• Area of steel where film is
broken down starts to
corrode
– Anode

• Area of steel where film

remains intact feeds
reaction
– Cathode

17 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

Fe Fe2+ + 2e-

2H2O + O2 + 4e- 4OH-

18 RMIT University
Corrosion Initiation
• Concentration Cl
– Cl/OH ratio
• Cement composition
– PFA and GGBS better than
OPC
• Steel Type
– Mild steel more prone to
corrosion than stainless
– Type of mild steel also affects
susceptibility
• Defects on steel
– Damage breaks down
passive layer

19 RMIT University
Corrosion Initiation

• Moisture content
– Moisture allows current to flow

• Temperature
– Higher temperatures high
corrosion
– 100 C double the rate

RMIT University©2011 Information Technology Services 20

Steel Corrosion

• CORROSION needs both WATER and OXYGEN

– There will be NO corrosion in dry structures or saturated
structures
– Difference in electrical potential required to enable anodes and
cathode to form

21 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

Fe2+ + 4OH- Fe(OH) 2

4Fe(OH)2 + O2 2Fe2O3 + 4H2O

Corrosion products dependant upon oxygen availability, the darker

the product the less oxygen

The more oxygen the greater volume the corrosion product the more
likely that rust staining, cracking and spalling will occur.
Beware FeO (black) corrosion product as this may not give visible
evidence of corrosion until significant corrosion has occurred.

22 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

RMIT University©2011 Information Technology Services 23

Steel Corrosion

24 RMIT University
Steel Potentials

• Potential is indicator of
likely condition of steel
• In concrete steel is
normally passive
• As pH reduces steel more
likely to corrode
• As potential get’s lower
steel more likely to corrode
– Until it reaches Immunity
– No Oxygen

25 RMIT University
Steel Potentials

Chloride ions increase

likelihood of steel falling
into the general corrosion
area

RMIT University©2011 Information Technology Services 26

Carbonation Attack

Carbon Di-oxide CO 2

Un - Protected Steel

27 RMIT University
Carbonation Attack

H2O + CO2 H+ + HCO3-

The carbon dioxide dissolves in the pore water to form a weak acid which
lowers the pH of the concrete. This results in the de-passivation of the
reinforcing steel, which will allow corrosion to take place.

De-passivated steel MAY corrode.

28 RMIT University
General and Pitting Corrosion

29 RMIT University
General Corrosion

• General Corrosion
– Very small anodes/cathodes separated by a few mm at most
– Produces red/orange expansive oxides
– Typical corrosion rates less than 10 microns per year
– Primarily caused carbonation
– Can be caused by chlorides (but unlikely)

30 RMIT University
Pitting Corrosion

• Pitting Corrosion
– Small anodic areas driven by large (remote) cathodes
– Requires low resistivity in concrete
– Can be upto 8 times faster than general corrosion
– Can lead to serious section loss
– Two anodic sites may be opposite each other on same bar
– More likely to result in black or dark brown corrosion product which
are less expansive
– Due almost exclusively to chlorides

31 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

• Causes
– Chlorides
– Similar to reinforcing steel
chlorides will corrode the
steel, especially where
surface is often wet
– Acid gases
– Acid gases will corrode steel
– Bacteria
– Aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria will “eat” steel

32 RMIT University
Steel Corrosion

• Precautions
– Stainless Steel
– More passive than mild steel
– Coatings
– Galvanising
– Plastics
– Paint
– Allowances
– Additional thickness to allow
for corrosion.
– Prescribed in relevant
standards

33 RMIT University
ASR (AAR) Attack

• Aggregates can react with OH- in

the pore water to produce Alkali
Silica Reaction (ASR)
• Requires
– High alkali content (Na2O, K2O)
– Moisture
– Reactive aggregate
• Test susceptibility
– EN 206 – 1
– ASTM 295
– Petrographic
– Rilem AAR 3
– BS 812 Part 123
– Expansive Prism

34 RMIT University
ASR (AAR) Attack

• Mitigation Methods
– Non reactive aggregates
– Limiting alkali content by
choice of cement
– Using blended cements
– PFA
– Silica Fume
– Using Lithium compounds
– LiNO3

35 RMIT University
 Cement Replacement Level (% by mass)a
Total Alkali Chemical
Composition
Type of SCM Content of SCM (%
Requirement (% Prevention Levels Y
Na2Oe)* Prevention Level W Prevention Level X
oxides) & Z

CaO < 8% ³ 15 ³ 20 ³ 25

< 3.0 CaO =8%-20% ³ 20 ³ 25 ³ 30

CaO > 20% See Note b See Note b See Note b

Fly Ash CaO < 8% ³ 20 ³ 25 ³ 30

3.0-4.5 CaO = 8%-20% ³ 25 ³ 30 ³ 35

CaO > 20% See Note b See Note b See Note b

> 4.5 - - See Note b -

Blast Furnace Slag < 1.0b None ³ 25 ³ 35 ³ 50

Silica Fume < 1.0b SiO2 2.0 x alkali contentc 2.5 x alkali contentc 3.0 x alkali contentc

Natural pozzolans that meet CSA A23.5 requirements may be used, provided that their effectiveness in
Natural Pozzolans
controlling expansion due to ASR is demonstrated according to CSA Recommended Practice.

When two or more SCMs are used together to control ASR, the minimum replacement levels given in table 5 of
the CSA Guidelines (CSA, 2000a) for the individual SCMs may be reduced partially, provided that the sum of the
Ternary Blends parts of each SCM is 1. For example, when silica fume and slag are combined, the silica fume level may be
reduced to one-third of the minimum silica fume level given in this table, provided that the slag level is at least
two-thirds of the minimum slag level given in the table.

RMIT University 36
Sulphate Attack

• Sea Water
• Sulphate in Groundwater
• Acid Sulphate Soils
• Sewerage

37 RMIT University
Sulphate Attack

• Sulphate in groundwater
diffuses into the concrete
in the pore water
• Sulphates react with the
components of cement
– C3A

• Products produced
– Ettringite
– Gypsum
– Thaumasite

38 RMIT University
Gypsum Attack

• Calcium hydroxide and sulphate react to form gypsum

– CaSO4. 2H2O

• Gypsum will subsequently react with calcium aluminate

hydrate (C-A-H) to form ettringite
• And with calcium carbonate and C-S-H gel to form
thaumasite

39 RMIT University
Ettringite Formation

• Sulphate reacts with the

C3A component of cement
• Expansive reaction product
• Eventually results in
cracking and spalling

40 RMIT University
Delayed Ettringite Formation

• Initially formed ettringite

(from sulphate in mix)
dissolves and then
subsequently is reformed
• Causes crack along edge
of aggregate
• Requires
– High temperature
– Intermittent wetting
– ASR

41 RMIT University
 Thaumasite Attack

• Requires
– Sulphate and carbonate
– Water
– Temperature 4-10C

• Attacks calcium silicate

hydrate and calcium hydroxide
– Not Aluminates

• Can exist in two forms

• Weakens strength and makes
concrete friable

42 RMIT University
Sulphate Attack –
Anion Effect
• The rate of sulphate attack is influenced by the associated
anions
• Mg2+ can result in a rate of attack 2-5 times that of other
anions, Na+, Ca2+, K+
• Mg2+ can also form a brucite layer on surface to protect
concrete from further ingress by sulphate ions
• When identifying sulphate in groundwater anion should
also be identified
• Most common form is Na+

43 RMIT University
Sulphate – Acid Attack

44 RMIT University
Sulphate – Acid Attack

• Anaerobic bacteria reduces the sulphate to sulphide

• Sulphide is oxidised to form acid

4FeS2 + 15O2 +14H2O Fe(OH) 3 + 8H2SO4

• Acid then dissolve the cement matrix

Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 CaSO 4.2H2O

45 RMIT University
Leaching

• Water flows through

cracks in concrete
• Minerals in the cement
paste are leached out
– Primarily Ca2+
– Also Na+ and K+

• White precipitate on
surface
– Known as Efflourescence

• Eventually leads to loss of

strength

46 RMIT University
Freeze/Thaw

• Freeze/Thaw
– Water expands on freezing
– Occupies greater volume leading
to “pop outs”
– Allows easier access to water and
deterioration progresses more
and more quickly
– Use air entrainment to allow
expansion of water into voids

47 RMIT University
Thermal Exposure

• UV degradation of plastics
and coatings
– ASTM D1005 and D1014
– Site exposure and test
cabinets
• Corrosion rate doubles for
a ten degree rise in
temperature
• Microbiological species
often breed/feed at higher
rates at higher
temperatures

48 RMIT University
Timber

• Deterioration
– Moisture
– Drying out causing shrinkage
– Water exposure causes
rotting
– Insects
– Termites
– Beetles
– Fungi
– Dry rot
– Wet rot

49 RMIT University
Timber

• Defect location can affect

result
• Different species
more/less susceptible to
certain deterioration
mechanisms
• Timber may be treated to
prevent decay
• Samples sent to lab for
testing rather than tested
in situ

50 RMIT University
Timber

• Repairs
– Must match aesthetically
– Must reach current standards
– Species originally used may
be now on protected list and
can not be used
– New material often has lower
life expectancy than original

51 RMIT University