EXT- 506

RESEARCH METHODS ON BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

TERM PAPER PRESENTATION
TOPIC- SAMPLING, SAMPLING TYPES, SAMPLING ERROR,
MAX-MIN-CON PRINCIPLE

COURSE INCHARGE-
Dr. M. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY SIR.
PROFESSOR AND HEAD
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION
TERMS
Population
 Population means the aggregate of all the persons, elements, objects
or items having defined features such as occupying certain
geographical space or having a certain quality/ qualities or having a
common origin or background or such other attribute or feature.
 Time- particular moment or period of time.

 Attribute- male and female, colour

 Variable is a feature on which sample element varies- Income,

Education...
 A population is the group that is the main focus of a researcher’s
interest; a sample is the group from whom the researcher actually
collects data.
Universe
 is broad enough to cover all elements that theoretically meet the
attributes so to be called belonging to group.
 Universe is infinite.

Example-
Study of customer satisfaction in respect of
telephone services.
Here,
universe- who uses telephone services.
Population- one who has telephone connection since one year and
the bimonthly average bill is 1000Rs/- . Population is finite.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Sample
is the cluster of people or events, for example, from or about which you
will actually gather data.
sample is the group from whom the researcher actually collects data.
 Target population-
the population which investigator want to study.
 Sampling Frame-

the list of elements from which potential respondents are drawn or

sample is selected.
Example
Telephone book.
Voters list
 Sampling scheme-

method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame

THESIS TILE- ROLE OF MNREGA IN IMPROVING
LIVELIHOOD OF TRIBES IN ATTAPADY BLOCK,
KERALA STATE
 Universe of the study
The list of MGNREGS households
 Population

MNREGS household who had completed 100 days of work during the period
2013-4 to 2017-18 was taken from the three gram panchayats, viz., Agali,
Pudur and Sholayur which total to 7561 ( 3227+2623+1711 respectively).
 Unit of study/ Target population

The unit of study considered for the study is the household (HH). Since 100
days is given to a household and not an individual worker, the household was
selected as the unit for the study. 3995 households
 Sampling Frame
Gram Panchayat-wise data of the job card holders of the said
category was extracted from the MIS of the scheme
Sampling method
Using simple random sampling method,
Sample size
384 respondents.
ESSENTIALS OF GOOD SAMPLE
 Representativeness - should be a representative sample.
 Appropriate size – not too large not too small. Larger the sample
higher the
accuracy
 Goal oriented- sample must reflect the goal of the Research.

 Measurability

 Practicability.

 Economical.
SAMPLING
 Sampling is the process of selecting observations that will be
analyzed for research purposes
 Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a
subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them
and estimate characteristics of the whole population
Important considerations in Sampling-
1. Representativeness.

2. Probability.

3. Randomisation.
WHY SAMPLING ?????
 When population is large research becomes difficult to
manage
 More time to collect data
 When population size is large, analysis become difficult.
 Expensive .
 Sampling methods

SAMPLING METHODS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. SIMPLE RANDAM SAMPLING. 1. CONVIENIENCE SAMPLING.

2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING. 2. JUDGMENTAL/ PURPOSIVE SAMPLING.
3. STRATIFIED RANDAM SAMPLING. 3. QUOTA SAMPLING
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING 4.SNOWBALL SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets
a selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population
randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of
the sample with this selection parameter.
 Researchers choose samples from a larger population using a method
based on the theory of probability. 
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TYPES
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part
of a sample.
 Lottery method: Names are written on slips and the slips are drawn at
random
ADVANTAGES
 Itis a fair method of sampling
 The person conducting the research doesn’t need to have prior
knowledge of the data he/ she is collecting. 
 This sampling method is a fundamental method of collecting the
data. You don’t need any technical knowledge. You only require
essential listening and recording skills.
 The data collected through this sampling method is well informed;
more the samples better is the quality of the data
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. 
 Selecting from sequential list: List of names of individuals are prepared
and arranged alphabetically, then every selected member ( either 5th , 10th or
15th ) is selected as sample
Advantages Disadvantages
 Sample easy to select.  May be biased.
 Sampling frame identified  Each element does not get
easily. equal chance.
 Sample evenly spread over
entire reference population
 Cost effective
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
 StratifiedRandom Sampling: The population is divided into
different parts called ‘strata’. Each stratum is sampled
independently by random method and sample is chosen at random
from each strata.
TYPES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Proportionate Stratified sampling Disproportionate Stratified sampling

 Sample from each strata is  Proportionate representation not

proportionate to the share in given to strata.
population
ADVANTAGES
 Better accuracy of results compared to other probability sampling.
 Represents maximum population.

 Statistical methods are used.

Disadvantages-
o Time consuming.

o Prior knowledge of composition and of distribution of population

CLUSTER SAMPLING
  Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the
entire population into sections or clusters that represent a
population.
 Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. 
 Researchers then select random groups with a simple random or
systematic random sampling technique for data collection and data
analysis.
 We can divide this technique into
 single-stage,
 two-stage, and

 multiple stages.
o Single stage sampling- sampling done at once.

Two stage cluster sampling- sampling at 2 stages

o Area is chosen

o Respondents within the area is selected

o Population divided into cluster of homogenous units.

Multiple stage cluster Sampling- sampling at no of levels

THESIS TITLE- EFFECT OF SERVICE LEARNING AND COMMUNITY
SERVICE ON GRADUATE STUDENTS IN COLLEGES OF TAMILNADU
RAJASHRI.S

 The study is a sample survey. Tamil Nadu is the venue of the study.
A multistage sampling method is adopted.
 The first stage deals with selection of districts. Tamil Nadu has been
divided into four regions viz., North, Central, West, and South
 Southern region with 9 districts was purposively selected as it has
large number of aided arts and science colleges and government
colleges
 22 colleges from 9 districts of southern region were selected

 Considering the time constraint only 20 students were selected

randomly from each of the selected colleges.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLUSTER SAMPLING AND
STRATIFIED SAMPLING.
Cluster sampling Stratified sampling
1. Randomly selected clusters Randomly selected members from
strata.
2. Division naturally formed Depends on the researcher.
3. More errors Less errors
4. Homogeneity externally Homogeneity internally.
5. Simple random sampling Proportionate stratified random
sampling
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience sampling.

Judgmental / Purposive sampling

Quota sampling

Snowball sampling
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
 this method is dependent on the
ease of access to subjects .
 This non-probability sampling
method is used when there are time
and cost limitations in collecting
feedback. In situations where there
are resource limitations such as the
initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used.
ADVANTAGES
 Collecting data quickly, where time is a constraint.
 Inexpensive/low cost.

 Easy to do research.

 Readily available sample.

 Fewer rules to follow.

Disadvantages –
The researcher chooses members merely based on proximity and
doesn’t consider whether they represent the entire population or
not.
 JUDGMENTAL/ PURPOSIVE SAMPLING.
 Sample members are chosen based
on researchers knowledge and
judgment.
 only a restricted number of people
in a population who own qualities
that a researcher expects from the
target population. 
Advantages –
 Purposive sampling is one of the most cost-effective and time-
effective sampling methods available.
 Purposive sampling may be the only appropriate method
available if there are only limited number of primary data sources
who can contribute to the study.
Disadvantages-
 Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher
 Low level of reliability and high levels of bias.

 Inability to generalize research findings

QUOTA SAMPLING
 In Quota sampling, the selection of
members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is
formed based on specific attributes,
the created sample will have the
same qualities found in the total
population. It is a rapid method of
collecting samples.
Advantages of quota sampling
 Saves time: Because of the involvement of a quota for sample
creation, this sampling process is quick and straightforward.
 Accurate representation of the population of interest: Researchers
effectively represent a population using this sampling technique. 
 Saves money.

Disadvantages –
Prior knowledge is needed.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 Snowball sampling or chain-
referral sampling is defined as a 
non-probability sampling 
technique in which the samples
have traits that are rare to find.
 The sample size increases like
snowball increasing in size till the
time a researcher has enough data
to analyze, to draw conclusive
results
Advantages of Snowball Sampling
 It’s
quicker to find samples
 Cost effective.

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

 Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer those whom
they know.
 Difficulty to locate people

 Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after referrals,

people might not be cooperative and refuse to participate in the
research studies.
DIFFERENCES
MEANS FOR PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBABILITY
COMPARISION SAMPLING

MEANING All the subjects from Sampling where it is not

population has equal known that which
opportunity to be selected as individual from the
represented sample. population is selected
ALERNATE NAME Random Sampling. Non-Random Sampling.
OPPORTUNITY OF Fixed and known. Not fixed and not known.
SELECTION
RESULT Unbiased Biased
HYPOTHESIS Tested Generated
CHANCE OF Less more
ERROR
SAMPLING ERROR
 A sampling error is a deviation in sampled value versus the true
population value .
 The difference between the values derived from the sample of a
population and the true values of the population parameters is
considered a sampling error.
 The errors can be eliminated by increasing the sample size or the
number of samples.
 TOTAL ERROR

NON RANDOM SAMPLING ERROR

RANDOM SAMPLING
RESPONSE ERROR
ERROR
NON RES PONSE ERROR

RESEARCHER ERROR INERVIEWER ERROR REPONDENT ERROR

MAX-MIN-CON PRINCIPLE
 The
design of experimental research should be guided by the MAX-
MIN-CON principle developed
MAXIMIZE by KERLINGER
MINIMIZE 1986.
CONTROL

●
NUISANCE/
●
SYSTEMIC ●
ERROR ●
EXOGENOUS/
VARIANCE VARIANCE ●
CONFOUNDIND
ING VARIABLES
MAXIMIZE THE VARIANCE OF THE VARIABLE (EXPERIMENTAL
VARIANCE)
 It is produced in the dependent variables by the manipulation of
the experimental variables ( independent variables).
MINIMISING THE ERROR VARIANCE
Source of error- errors of measurement, variation of responses,
guessing, inattention, lapse of memory, emotional status of
subjects…
For minimizing error
1. Reduction of errors of measurement through controlled
conditions.
2. Increase in reliability and validity of measurement.
CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
 Here the control of influence Extraneous variables to the purpose
of stud are minimized/ nullified.
how to control????
Elimination of extraneous variables.
Randomisation.
Matching- similar characters in experimental and control groups.
Manipulation of independent variables.
Appropriate subject selection.
SUBMITTED BY
D. RACHANA
M.SC AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 1ST YEAR
ID NO- RAM/2020-22

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