RESEARCH DESIGN

KINDS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Historical Research Design – the study is focused in the past

(what was)
2. Descriptive Research Design – the study is focused in the
present condition (what is)
3. Experimental Research Design – the study is focused on the
future (what will be)
4. Case Study Research Design – the study is focused on the past,
present, and future.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS APPLICABLE FOR SCIENCE RESEARCHES

1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 Survey
 Direct Observation
2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
3. COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
 Experimental Research
 Quasi-Experimental
 Causal ( Ex Post Facto )
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN – refers to the complete sequence

of steps to be undertaken to answer the research problem.
 It involves the logical structure and organization of an
experiment.
 It is a detailed plan of the sampling procedures, data collection
and data analysis followed by the investigator during the actual
experimentation.
 It also includes the variables under study.
FUNCTIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 It provides direction during the actual experimentation.

 It allows a gain of maximum information relevant to the
problem at minimum cost.
 It makes the statistical test of significance valid because it
takes into consideration all the assumptions that went into
deriving the various statistics.
 GENERAL FEATURES

1. The design of the experiment depends on the type of research

undertaken and the nature of the conditions under which the
study was done.
2. The design of an experiment is dictated by the question it is to
answer.
3. There is no common blue print that will serve as a guide in
writing an experimental design.
4. Each problem requires its own unique design.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN DEFINITION OF TERMS

 EXPERIMENT – any planned inquiry to obtain new facts or to conform or deny

the results of the previous experiments
 EXPERIMENTAL UNITS – unit of material to which one application of
treatment is applied
 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR (variance) – measure of variation among
experimental units treated alike
 TREATMENT – any procedure the effect of which is to be measured and
compared with the effect of the other procedure
 SAMPLING UNITS – units from which measurements are taken or observations
are made
 SAMPLING ERROR – measure of variation which exists among observations
taken from elements within the experimental units
BASIC PRINCIPLES / IMPORTANT ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER IN THE VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 

A. REPLICATION – refers to the repetition of the basic experiment.

 Applied to a number of experimental units
 It is done to provide an estimate variation among observations on units treated alike,
assessing the significance of observed differences.
 To provide estimate of experimental error
 To improve the precision of experiment by reducing the standard error of the mean
 To increase the scope of inference of the experiment
 It makes the test of significance possible.
 The number of replicates needed is based on the degree of precision required, the degree of
homogeneity of the samples and the number of the treatments in the study.
Precision – refers to the degree to which the design can detect differences between treatments.
Homogeneity – means the samples have the same characteristics except in their response
towards the treatment variable.
B. RANDOMIZATION – refers to the assignment of the experimental units to
the treatments or vice versa by chance.
 The manner in which the treatments are assigned to the experimental units.
 Every treatment has equal chance to be assigned to any experimental unit.

 It ensures a valid or unbiased estimate of population parameters, e.g.,

means and differences between treatments.
 It ensures the validity of the statistical test of significance.
 Randomization neutralizes in effect the influence that pre-existing
differences between samples might have on experimental results.
 Validity ensures that what should be measured is being measured; it also
increases the range of application of the results to a wider range of other similar
conditions.
C. LOCAL CONTROL / ERROR CONTROL – refers to the balancing,
grouping and blocking of experimental units that are employed in the
adopted design.
 Achieved through the proper use of experimental design
 The use of concomitant observation ( as in covariance analysis)
 Proper choice of size and shape of experimental units
 Refinement of experimental techniques
Blocking – is the allocation of the experimental units to a block in such a
manner that the units within the block are relatively homogenous. Some
bases for blocking are height, age, sex, weight, differences in soil fertility,
and extent of exposure to sunlight.
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN – is a problem-solving approach that the study
is described in the future on what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated.
 This design is the most useful in natural sciences – Life or Physical Sciences.
 A study using experimental design has a control group and experimental group to
determine the causal relationship except in a single variable which is changed with a view
of measuring the effect of its operation.
 It is a research design wherein a researcher manipulates and controls one or more
independent variables for variation concomitant to the manipulation of the dependent
variable.
 It is the most prestigious method for advancing science and technology as well as research
and development because it is production- oriented.
 This is the only design that can truly test hypothesis regarding cause and effect
relationships.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. SINGLE – GROUP DESIGN –is composed of only one

group, the experimental which involves a single treatment with
two or more levels.
 Example:
A researcher wishes to study “ The Effect Of Different
Levels Of Nitrogen On The Yield Of Peanuts ”. In this
experimental study, nitrogen is a single treatment used in different
levels as fertilizer in planting peanut can be 60-30-30 (NPK); 90-
30-30 (NPK); 120-30-30 (NPK) and so on. N stands for nitrogen,
P, Phosphorous, and K, Potassium.
 TWO – GROUP DESIGN – two comparable groups are employed as
experimental and control groups.
 Example:
 Suppose a researcher wishes to study “ The Growth Rate of
Groupers (lapu-lapu) Cultured In Fish Cage With and Without
Supplemental Feeds “. Grouper cultured in fish cage with supplemental
feed constitutes the experimental group and the other one cultured in fish
cage without supplemental feed constitute the control group.
 The t-test is used to determine the significant difference in the mean
weight of grouper cultured in fish cage with and without supplemental feed.
 TABLE 1: SAMPLE OF TWO – GROUP DESIGN

Treatment Weights of Grouper Mean (X)

Control Group    
(Without XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X1
Supplemental Feed)

Experimental Group    
(With Supplemental XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X2
Feed)
3. TWO – PAIR GROUP DESIGN – This design is an elaboration of the
two-group design wherein there are two experimental groups and two
control groups.
 Example:
Suppose an investigator wishes to study “ The Acceptability,
Nutritive Values, And Economics Of Canned Milkfish (Chanos chanos
forskal) in Salmon and Spanish styles with and without Sargassum as
Sea Vegetables “ Canned milkfish in salmon and Spanish styles without
Sargassum are the two control groups and canned milkfish in salmon and
Spanish styles with Sargassum as sea vegetable are the two experimental
groups.
 The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is used to determine the
significant difference on the acceptability of canned milkfish with and
without Sargassum in salmon and Spanish styles.
 TABLE 2: SAMPLE OF TWO – PAIR GROUP DESIGN ON THE ACCEPTABILITY OF CANNED MILKFISH
IN SALMON AND SPANISH STYLES WITH AND WITHOUT SARGASSUM AS SEA VEGETABLE
  Canned Milkfish
  Control Groups (Without Sargassum) Experimental Groups (With Sargassum)
1 2 1 2

Panelist Salmon Style Spanish Style Salmon Style Spanish Style

1 X
2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X
6 X
7 X
8 X
9 X
10 X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X
4. PARALLEL – GROUP DESIGN – two or more groups are used at the same time
with only one single variable (control group) manipulated or changed.
 It consist of 3 or more groups; 1 control and 2 kinds of experimental groups.
 The experimental group varies while the parallel group serves as control for
comparative purposes.
 Example:
For instance, a researcher wishes to determine” The Acceptability of Canned Short-
Bodied Mackerel (Rastrelliger brachyosomus Bleeker) In Salmon Style With And
Without Seaweeds “ as sea vegetables . The control group is canned mackerel in salmon
style without and has two experimental groups, namely, canned mackerel with Sargassum
and canned mackerel with Halymenia. All things are held constant, except the
experimental groups that have an addition of seaweeds or sea vegetables.
 The ANOVA is used to determine the significant difference on the acceptability
of canned mackerel in salmon style with and without seaweeds.
TABLE 3: SAMPLE OF PARALLEL – GROUP DESIGN ON THE ACCEPTABILITY OF CANNED MACKEREL (RASTRELLIGER BRACHYOSOMUS
BLEEKER) IN SALMON STYLE WITH AND WITHOUT SEAWEEDS

  Canned Mackerel (R. brachysomus)

Panelist Control Group
(Without Seaweed)
1 X
2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X
6 X
7 X
8 X
9 X
10 X X
Experimental Groups ( With Seaweeds)
Sargassum Halymenia
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
5. COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN – a design in which a group of
test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied
to determine the cause of change. It is concerned with the effects of different
treatments as they are applied randomly on the materials.
 There is no control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization
procedures.
 CRD is concerned with the effects of different treatments as they are applied
randomly on the materials.
 The treatments are randomly assigned to the experimental groups without
restriction.
 The experimental subjects are assumed to be homogenous with respect to the
factors that could affect the treatments being compared.
 Randomization Procedure:
Suppose there are 15 experimental subjects, three(3) of which will receive one
of five(5) treatments or levels of an independent variable – A, B, C, D or E. The three(3)
subjects receiving a particular treatment will be considered three replicates for a
treatment. The following steps are called for:
1. Number the experimental subjects from 1 to 15.
2. Select at random a set of 15 three-digit numbers from the table of random numbers.
3. Assign ranks to the numbers; three ranks can be considered random permutation
(arrangement) of the numbers 1 – 15 assigned to the experimental subjects.
4. Divide the numbers into five(5) groups and assign treatment A to the first group, B
to the second group, and so on.
EXAMPLE:
 Advantages:
1. The CRD is flexible in that in the number of treatments and replication is limited only by the
number of experimental subjects.
2. The statistical analysis is simple and easy even if the number of replication per treatment is not
the same.
3. The statistical analysis is simple and easy even if some experimental subjects or entire
treatments are missing or rejected.
 Disadvantages:
 It is not always easy to obtain experimental subjects with homogeneous characteristics.
If the experimental subjects differ significantly from one another, then the accuracy of the
design is reduced. This is due to the fact that the variation between the experimental units enters
into the experimental error. The test may thus indicate significant differences among the
treatments when actually there is none.
 Appropriateness: The design is appropriate to use if the experimental subjects have similar
characteristics.
 EXAMPLE # 1:

 Consider a study done by PSHS students to determine” The Effectiveness Of Nail Polish To
Seal Cracks In Chicken Eggs Intended For Hatching “.
 Twenty eggs of the same size (small, medium or large), date of production, and which
came from the same breed of chickens were used in the investigation. The experimental eggs
with cracks were sealed with three coatings of colorless nail polish while the control eggs also
with cracks were not sealed. The number of eggs that hatched in each group were counted after
subjecting both groups to the same condition for hatching.
 Since the sample (20 chicken eggs) is homogeneous (same size, date of production and
came from the same breed), the CRD is an appropriate experimental design for this research.
 The eggs were numbered 1 to 20 and randomly assigned either to the experimental or
control group until there were 10 eggs in each group. A die was used for the randomization
procedure. Twenty throws of the die were done. The designation of even-numbered sides of the
die to the experimental group and the odd-numbered sides to the control group is arbitrary.
 The assignment of the eggs using a die to either the experimental or control group
illustrates randomization, while the grouping into either the control or the experimental set-up
constitutes local control and number of eggs per group illustrates replication.
EXAMPLE #2

 An investigator wishes to determine if there is a significant difference in

the treatment of pellets as supplemental feed upon the yield of prawn
(sugpo) cultured in the fishpond. He uses 300 pieces of prawn fry and
three compartments in the pond. The 300 pieces of pawn fry are placed at
random. Of the 300 pieces of prawn fry, 100 pieces are placed in each
compartment. The weight of the prawn in each compartment should be
observed carefully and ecological parameters such as pH, salinity,
oxygen, etc. should be taken into consideration. Different levels of
proportion of pellets are applied as supplemental feed in each
compartment.
 RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN (RCBD) – is a slight
variation from CRD, intended to be used when two sets of variables are
being studied.
 This experimental design uses a group of test plants and animals as
subjects of the study which are studied once but subsequent treatments
applied are replicated to determine the cause of change. There is control
in this design and the subjects will undergo randomization process.
 The experimental subjects are divided into more or less homogeneous
groups called blocks. The purpose of blocking is to have experimental
subjects in group, all of which have similar characteristics, so that
observed differences will be largely due to treatments.
EXAMPLE :

 Randomization Procedure:
Suppose there are 15 experimental subjects, three of which are
to receive one of five treatments – A, B, C, D or E – or three
replicates per treatment.
 Group the experimental subjects into blocks according to some
identifying characteristics; and
 Carry out the CRD randomization procedure within each block
( note that new randomization is performed for each block ).
EXAMPLE:
 Advantages:
1. Because of blocking, more accurate results may be obtained than with the CRD.
2. There are no restrictions on the number of treatments or number of blocks.
3. If extra replication is desired for some treatments, these may be applied to two or
more experimental subjects per block.
4. If data for a complete block or for certain treatments are unusable, these data
may be omitted without complicating the analysis; and if data are missing for
some experimental subjects, these can be estimated easily by the ” missing –
plot” technique developed by Yates.
5. Even if the experimental error is large for some treatments, an unbiased error for
testing the difference between any two treatment means can still be obtained.
 Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to form blocks with homogeneous experimental units.
2. When the variation among the experimental subjects within a block is
large, a large error then results.
 Appropriateness:
 The design is appropriate to use if the experimental subjects can be
grouped or blocked according to certain characteristics such as age, sex or
height, which can affect the treatments being compared.
EXAMPLE # 1:

Consider a study done by PSHS to determine the effectiveness of nail polish to seal cracks in chicken
eggs intended for hatching.
This time the twenty eggs were two different sizes although they came from the same breed of
chickens and were of the same production date. Ten eggs were small and other ten were large. The cracks in
the experimental eggs were sealed with three coatings of colorless nail polish. Successive coatings of nail
polish were applied after the previous coating was already dry. The cracks in the control eggs were not coated
with nail polish. The eggs that hatched in each group were counted after subjecting both groups to the same
conditions for hatching.
Since the sample eggs are of two different sizes, the RCBD is an appropriate experimental design for
this research. In one block, the small-sized eggs were numbered from 1 to 10. The other block was made up
of large-sized eggs which were also numbered from 1 to 10. Random sampling was done twice, once for each
block. The same die could be used again as a randomization device. Whenever an even-numbered side ( 2, 4,
or 6 ) came up, the egg was assigned to the experimental group. Whenever an odd-numbered side ( 1, 3, or 5 )
came up, the egg was assigned to the control group. This way, a total of 10 eggs were assigned to the
experimental group, 5 being small and 5 being large. The other 10 eggs were assigned to the control group, 5
being small and 5 being large.
 The assignment of the eggs to either group illustrates randomization, the blocking and grouping illustrate
local control, and the number of chickens in either experimental or control group ( 10 ) represents
replication.
EXAMPLE # 2:

 Suppose the researcher wishes to determine “ The effectiveness of cultivating milkfish

in the fishpond using fish meal, bread meal, and ipil-ipil leaves as supplemental
feeds”.
 There are four groups in this experimental study treated with different feeds.
These are as follows: (1) First treatment, control group, lab-lab only as natural food of
milkfish; (2) Second treatment, first experimental group, lab-lab and fish meal; (3) Third
treatment, second experimental group, lab-lab and bread meal; (4) Fourth treatment, third
experimental group, lab-lab and ipil-ipil leaves.
 Each group is replicated three times. In other words, ther are three
compartments for the control group or first treatment (T1); 3 compartments for the the
second experimental group or third treatment (T3) and 3 for the third experimental group
or fourth treatment (T4). A total of 12 compartments in all are under study.
Treatment Replications

T1 X X X

T2 X X X

T3 X X X

T3 X X X
7. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN – This experimental design is used to
determine the relationship of two dependent variables ( X and Y ) on how
they are manipulated by the independent variable.
 Example:
For instance, the researcher wishes to determine the weight and length
relationship of grouper cultured in a concrete tank using fish meal as
supplemental feed. Fish meal is the independent variable and weight (X) and
length (Y) of grouper are the dependent variables. In other words, the weight
(X) and length (Y) of fish are dependent on the feed used.
 The correlation coefficient is the statistical tool used to determine the
weight and length relationship of the grouper. If the significant
relationship is very high and high relationship occur on the X and Y, this
means that the heavier the weight, the longer the fish; and the lighter
the weight, the shorter the length. If no relationship exists, this means
that the heavier the weight, the shorter the length; and the lighter the
weight, the longer the length of fish.
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

 General rule: CHOOSE THE SIMPLEST DESIGN SUITED TO THE

OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT
 Use of appropriate EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN depends on the
STATEMENT OF THE SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
 Each EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN produces data that may be analyzed by
an appropriate STATISTICAL TOOL
 The use of STATISTICAL TOOL may present the data using the
appropriate TABLES, CHARTS, FIGURES
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

 Experimental designs are varied

 SINGLE GROUP DESIGN (with only the experimental group)
 CONTROL GROUP DESIGN (with experimental and control
group)
 A well-designed experiment has:
1. INTERNAL VALIDITY (reliability of results)
2. EXTERNAL VALIDITY (generalizability of results)
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

PHASES:
1. THEORETICAL PHASE – conceptualization of an
experimental design.
2. ACTUAL EXPERIMENT PHASE – is the dominant phase in
research design often referred to as the heart of a science project
which involves doing experiments, observing and collecting data,
consolidating and analyzing the same and drawing conclusive
statements and recommendations.
FRAMEWORK IN THE FORMULATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Identification of the subject, variables, controls, experimental and

control groups
 Accuracy of the instruments or devices to be used in the
experiment
 Methodical set up of devices with strict quality control of the
subject for experimentation.
 Appropriate statistical model for the analyses of the data collected.
 CAMPBELL & STANLEY EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR SCIENCE RESEARCHES

1. ONE SHOT PRE TEST/POST TEST – One group is tested, exposed to treatment and
then tested again.
Experimental design
T = one test ; x = treatment
T 1 x T2

This is a poor design for life and social sciences, but may be meaningful for physical sciences. It has no
control. Observations on one organism cannot be generalized to others.
Some examples of questions which can be tested by this design:
 How does bleaching affect the activity of enzymes in vegetables?
 How does stress affect the strength of PVC?
 What is the effect of mordant on the action of fabric dye?
 How would adding a barrier to foliage affect sound transmission?
 2. RANDOMIZED CONTROL GROUP DESIGN (CRD & RCBD )

Experimental design
T1 X T2 Experimental
T1 X T3 Control

 This is a standard design for biology projects. Researchers compare the pre-test ( or initial condition) and
the post-test ( or final condition ) with a control group.
 In its simplest term, this design provides data for the student’s t-test ( to determine difference between
sample means ) or for chi-square analysis ( for data in frequency form ). The distinction between discrete
and continuous data ( and between histogram and line graphs ) requires a great deal of class time.
Students however, can figure out that the reliability of randomized control group test depends on the
number of subjects in the experiment.
 Some samples of questions which can be tested by this design:
 How does electromagnetic radiation affect the flight of honeybees?
 How does noise ( interference ) affect short term memory?
 How does zinc affect the growth of rice?
3. VARIABLES IN SERIES ( FACTORIAL EXPERIMENT)

Experimental design
T1 Xa T2
T1 Xb T2
T1 T2
Varying Strengths Varying treatment Varying strengths

 The variable is applied in series of strength, duration or form. This

strengthens experimental design such as the first two types:
 Before computers, these designs were hard to analyze. Today most
microcomputers can perform straightforward statistical technique called
analysis of variance, which can be used for data evaluation of this kind.
 Some examples of questions which can be tested by this design:
 What is the relationship between the concentration of fertilizer and the
growth of plants?
 What is the relationship between the type of metal bowl and the stiffness
of egg whites beaten in it?
 How does the wavelength of light affect seed germination?
 How does relative humidity affect plant growth or the sex ratios of
invertebrate offspring?
 What is the effect of solution pH on the color imparted by a die?
4. OBSERVATIONS OVER TIME ( REGRESSION & PROGRESSION )

Experimental design
T1 T2 T3 T4 X T5 T6 T7 T8
At different times At different times

 This design is often more valuable than a single test.

 Sample studies:
 Investigating the changes in the pH of the egg white as an egg ages.
 Investigating the changes in the reflex rate of animals as they age.
 Investigating the changes in the resistance of mango tree to certain disease as a result
of irradiation.
 Investigating the changes in the oxygen production of algae over time.
 This design may require the use of computer for curve fitting and extrapolation.
 5. PROGRESSIVE CHANGE

Experimental design
T1 T2 T3 T4 X T5 T6 T7 T8
T1 T2 T 3 T 4 T5 T6 T7 T8

 The design compares progressive changes in a subject over time to a control.

 Sample questions:
 Do neuro-inhibitors affect metamorphosis in insects?
 An variations in growth rings in fish scales ( or trees ) be corrected with
specific environmental events?