Research methods in

psychology
Research is the is a careful
and detailed study into a
specific problem, concern, or
issue using the scientific
method.
Why psychologists conduct research?
Psychologists conduct research because psychological
researchers want to learn and understand human behavior.
It can be about how people think, how they feel, how they
behave, or some combination of these issues.
 Types of research
APPLIED
BASIC
 Pure research or Basic Research

It is conducted without any specific goal in mind. The main aim of

pure research is to advance knowledge and to identify or explain
the relationship between variables.
Thus, it advances fundamental knowledge about the world, and
introduce new theories, ideas, and principals as well as new ways of
thinking. Pure research is the source of most new information and
ways of thinking in the world.
Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or
interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial
value to the discoveries that result from basic research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
How did the universe begin?
What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
How do slime molds reproduce?
What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
■ Pure research is driven by curiosity, intuition, and interest,
and is more exploratory in nature than applied research.
Sometimes pure research can act as a foundation for
applied research.
■ Applied research, unlike pure research, is conducted in order to
solve a specific and practical problem. Therefore, it tends to be
descriptive in nature.
■ However, applied research is often based on basic research or pure
research. Since it is involved in solving practical problems.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
 improve agricultural crop production
 treat or cure a specific disease
 improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
BASIS FOR COMPARISON BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
Meaning Basic Research refers to Applied Research is the
the study that is aimed at research that is designed
expanding the existing to solve specific practical
base of scientific problems or answer
knowledge. certain questions.

Nature Theoretical Practical

Utility Universal Limited
Concerned with Developing scientific Development of
knowledge and predictions technology and technique

Goal To add some knowledge to To find out solution for the

the existing one. problem at hand.
Main concepts in research
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational definition
Deduction
Induction
THEORY
A theory is a related set of concepts and principles about a
phenomenon and the purpose, explanation or prediction of
the phenomenon.
Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out
how to bring about change. Theory enables us to identify a
problem and to plan a means for altering the situation.
Hypothesis
It is a statement that can be tested about the topic of
interest.
It is a testable statement which tells us about the causal
relationship between the two events or variables.
 Deduction

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this
is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory
about our topic of interest.
We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow
down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses.
This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a
confirmation (or not) of our original theories.
 INDUCTION

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach.
In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect
patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and
finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
Operational definition
An operational definition, when applied to data collection, is a clear,
concise detailed definition of a measure.
All psychological concepts and labels, like learning, memory,
motivation, personality, etc., are inside in a human’s mind/brain.
Therefore, to study and measure them you need to measure
something that reflects these processes and that is known as
operational definition.
Example of operational definition
For example, suppose one wanted to study happiness. To study it,
one must measure it.
The researcher operationalize happiness to count smiles.
Happiness can be measured by counting the number of smiles a
person emits during an observation period of specified length.
Other examples
anxiety could be defined in dictionary terms as “a state of being
uneasy, apprehensive, or worried.”
An operational definition of the term could include observable
measures such as:
◦ sweating palms (observable as sweat gland activity),
◦ increased heart rate (observable with heartbeat recording),
◦ dilated pupils, and other observable physiological changes.
◦ It could also be a self-rating scale or a paper and-pencil
questionnaire.
 STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Purpose/Question
Ask a question.
2.Research
Conduct background research. Write down your sources so you can cite your
references.
3.Hypothesis
Propose a hypothesis which is a sort of educated guess about what you expect.
4. Experiment
Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis
through independent and dependent variables.
5. Data/Analysis
Record observations and analyze what the data means.
Often, you'll prepare a table or graph of the data.
6.Conclusion
Conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis.
Communicate your results.
 Experimental method
It is the most scientific and objective form of method.
Use to study cause and effect variables.
In an experiment, there is a deliberate manipulation of one variable which
is an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) and the changes are seen on the
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV).
We have to keep all other variables constant, only IV could be changed.
For example, suppose we want to investigate which of two methods is
more successful at teaching children to read. 
The aspect that we vary is called the independent variable (IV) and we
change this in a very precise way.  In this example the teaching method is
the independent variable.
We call the factor which we then measure, in our example it would be
some measure of the children reading ability, the dependent variable
(DV), because, if our ideas are correct, it depends on the independent
variable.  In our example, the children reading ability depends on the
teaching method used
Elements of experimental method
Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates
(i.e. changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent
variable.
Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after
making changes to the IV (which are assumed to affect the DV).
So IV is the cause and DV is the effect.
Q. It is predicted that certain nutritional drink influences
performance on a physical activity.
IV:
DV:
Experimental Group: it is the group which receives the manipulated
IV.
Control Group: a group which does not receive the manipulated IV.
Placebo Group: a group which are believed to be given manipulated
IV but actually they are not.
Extraneous variable: undesirable variables which might
influence an experiment.
For example: prior knowledge about an experiment, noise,
lightning, temperature.
Random Assignment: is an experimental technique ensures
that each participant or subject has an equal chance of being
placed in any group.
 Advantages of an experimental research
1. the most appropriate way for drawing causal conclusions regarding variables
taken for an experiment, for the treatment as well.
2. It is a basic, straightforward, efficient type of research.
3. Experimental research designs are repeatable and therefore, results can be
checked and verified.
4. Due to the controlled environment of experimental research, better results are
often achieved.
DISADVANATGES OF
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. Experimental research can create artificial situations that do not
always represent real-life situations which could effect the
results.

2. It may not be really possible to control all extraneous variables.

 Quasi Experimental Design
Quasi experimental has no random assignment
 The independent variables are manipulative (such as the
therapy interventions).
Quasi experimental are also done in a naturalistic
environment where an event/ incident already occurred and
data is taken after an event.
Examples
Does smoking cause cancer?
Did 9/11 cause an increase in prejudice against people of middle-
eastern decent?
Joint families/ nuclear families effects on children.
Earthquake victims
Flood victims
Quasi experiments are done because human characteristics
cannot be controlled every time and not always be
manipulated.
The behavior of human at times are complex which are
difficult for an experimenter to manipulate so it becomes
necessary for an experimenter to do research in a
naturalistic environment.
 Correlational research
A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two
variables. The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to
figure out which variables are connected.
Correlation research is looking for variables that seem to interact
with each other, so that when you can see one changing, you have
an idea of how the other will change.
Examples of Correlational Research
Relationship between hope and depression
Self - confidence and self –esteem
Intelligence and Academics
There are three types of correlations that are identified:
1. Positive correlation
2. Negative correlation
3. No correlation
Positive Correlation: is when an increase in one variable leads to an
increase in the other and a decrease in one leads to a decrease in
the other.
For example, the amount of money that a person possesses might
correlate positively with the number of cars he owns.
Negative Correlation: It is when an increase in one variable leads to
a decrease in another and vice versa.
For example, the level of education might correlate negatively with
crime. This means if by some way the education level is improved in
a country, it can lead to lower crime.
No correlation: Two variables are uncorrelated when a change in one
doesn't lead to a change in the other and vice versa.
For example, among millionaires, happiness is found to be
uncorrelated to money. This means an increase in money doesn't
lead to happiness.
A correlation coefficient is usually used during a correlational study.
It varies between +1 and -1. A value close to +1 indicates a strong
positive correlation while a value close to -1 indicates strong negative
correlation. A value near zero shows that the variables are
uncorrelated.
 Observation
It is a type of research method which is watching what people do.
It can be closed ( which means people do not know they are being
observed) or
it can be disclosed (which means they are told by an experimenter
that they are being observed).
There are different types of observational methods:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Natural Observations
3. Participant Observation
 Controlled Observation (structured observation)
Controlled observations are likely to be carried out in a psychology
laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take
place, at what time, with which participants, in what
circumstances and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are
randomly allocated to each independent variable group.
Naturalistic observation (unstructured observation)

It involves studying the spontaneous behavior of

participants in natural surroundings. The researcher
simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
For example:
Compared with controlled/structured methods it is like the
difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and
studying them in their natural habitat.
 Participant Observation
Participant observation is a variant of the natural observation
but in this type of observation researcher joins in and becomes
part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into
their lives.
For example
◦ if we want to do research on animals we would now not only be
studying them in their natural habitat but be living alongside
them as well.
Participant observation could be closed or disclosed.
 Survey
A survey is defined as a brief interview or discussion with individuals
about a specific topic.

It is the most frequent type of research method to collect

information.

We get to know about opinions, likes/dislikes of people regarding

certain topic and it could be taken in the form of questionnaire,
interview and brief discussion .
Sources of survey could be telephone, internet polls, face to
face.
Survey produce more biased results than observation
method
Surveys have been used to get to know about the product
preferences, health care needs and political opinions.
 Clinical methods: case history &
interviewing techniques
Case history /case study
Case study in psychology refers to the use of a descriptive research
approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or
phenomenon. A variety of techniques may be employed including
personal interviews, direct-observation, psychometric tests, and
archival records.
Archival research is analyzing already collected data. It is looking at
what is already in hand and applying statistical measures to it to
describe the information in a simpler way.
Collected data could be library records, courthouse records, business
records or client records.
 Interview techniques
There are three fundamental types of research interviews:
Structured
semi-structured and
unstructured.
 Structured interview

This is also known as a formal interview (like a job

interview).
The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the
interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so they are not
flexible).
These are based on structured, closed-ended questions .
 Unstructured Interview

They are sometimes called informal interviews.

An interview schedule might not be used, they will contain
open-ended questions that can be asked in any order.
Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview
progresses.
 Semi-structured Interview

Semi -structured interviews are in-depth interviews (often

called a 'conversation with a purpose’).
The interview blends between the two other types of
interview - structured and unstructured which has both
open ended and closed ended questions.
 Ethics in research
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying
out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research
participants from harm.
Psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the
rights and dignity of research participants. This means that they must
abide by certain moral principles and rules of conduct.
Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants
what the research is about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission)
to take part.
An adult (18ys +) capable of giving permission to participate in a study
can provide consent.
Parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow
their children to participate in a study.
 Debrief
After the research is over the participant should be able to
discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist.
They must be given a general idea of what the researcher
was investigating and why, and their part in the research
should be explained.
 Protection of Participants
Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research
will not be caused distress.
They must be protected from physical and mental harm.
This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or
harm participants.
 Deception
This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the
aims of the research.
Types of deception include: (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. staged
manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions;
(ii) deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information
about the study, or creating ambiguity.
 Confidentiality
Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept
anonymous unless they give their full consent. No names must be
used in a research report.
 Withdrawal from an Investigation
Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if
they feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to
withdraw their data.
They should be told at the start of the study that they have
the right to withdraw. They should not have pressure placed
upon them to continue if they do not want to.