PACKING

MWF 5-6 PM
 THREE BASIC FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING

3Ps of Packaging
• Protection - against loss, damage and pillerage, nature pf the contents,
against moisture entering or leaving the package, high or low temperature,
light, gases, infestation by insects, contamination and other natural hazards.
• Preservation - preserve the contents during storage and transfer from the
manufacturing to consuming centre.
• Presentation - the contents of the package depends essentially on the design
of the package which involves factors such as size, shape, colour,
embellishment, brand, name, etc.
• Freight forwarders themselves may not be directly
responsible for packaging or marking.
• Some big freight forwarding companies have their own
packaging departments whose service can be utilized by
exporters. In any case, the advice and guidance of freight
forwarders can be extremely useful to exporters.
• They can also recommend exporters professional packers
known for their efficiency and reliability and there are
specialized organizations such as the Institute of Packaging
which exist in several countries.

At the international level, the International Trade Center (ITC),

a United Nations agency at Geneva, gives assistance sand
advice on export packaging. The ITC has also undertaken
regional projects for strengthening the Institutional
Infrastructure for developing export packaging
 2.1.3 GUIDELINES ON THE CHOICE OF
PACKAGING
• 2.1.3.1 Goods should be well stowed within
the package, evenly distributed and properly
secured. Items completely filling the case or
carton contribute to the strength of the whole
package. Items which do not completely fill
the package must be cushioned against shock
or vibration. There must be adequate internal
bracing or securing using battens(bars of
wood) of dunnage(matts. Woodshavings, etc.)
• 2.1.3.2 Where the consignment consists of a number of small
packages, it is preferable to consolidate them into one load by
strapping and securing them to a wooden pallet base(a portable
platform for storing loads). The assembly of cargo into the
largest practical unit consistent with the handling, weight and
dimension requirements reduces the danger of theft to a
minimum. There is also the advantage of reduced handling
stresses, as larger units require the use of mechanical handling
equipment rather than crude manual techniques.

• Pallet packing is quite suitable for goods carried in containers

although they may also be carried by conventional methods. In
this case, however, there is the risk of breakage during transfer,
or on forwarding and handling operations.
• 2.1.3.3 in selecting the appropriate type of package, account
should be taken of the probability of cargo of being
“overstowed” along with other packages in warehouses and
cargo holds,.

• 2.1.3.4 appropriate strapping and banding techniques should

be used for all packages.

• 2.1.3.5 the regulations of the destination country as well as

those of any transit countries should be checked in order to
ensure that they do not prohibit certain types of packing
material, particularly material which is harmful to the
environment.
• 2.1.3.6 the re-use of second-hand cartons or cases should be
avoided as they are more liable to collapse or and may invite
pilferage (stealing in small quantities) if the contents become
exposed.
• 2.1.3.7 to improve the handling for bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the
package should match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging
and freight costs. From the shipper’s point of view , it is desirable that the
following considerations should be borne in mind in order to minimize the
cost of freight:

a.) in respect of measurement of the cargo, the package should be of

minimum dimension;
b.) there should be optimum utilization of space within the package; and
c.) goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed together on
one package, in case the courier charges freight for the whole package at the rate
applicable to the highest-rated commodity.

• 2.1.3.8 it is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and

waterproof lining for packages should be provided, particularly when the
packages are more likely to remain in an unprotected area, such as customs
area.
• 2.1.3.9 over-packaging in the name of protective packaging
should be avoided, in order to make optimum uses of the
carrying capacity. This is particularly important in air
transport where packages are consolidated into pallets, igloos
(4.5.2.2) or containers.

• 2.1.3.10 Powdered or granular material should be packed

preferably in flexible multiwall bags which are adapted to
the requirements of the material, taking into account its
chemical and physical characteristics.

• 2.1.3.11 in the case of the pressed bales (canvas packages of

merchandise), it is advisable to use an inner wrap of
waterproof paper below an outer or primary cover of
fibreboard, material, over which heavy jute or a similar
cover can be provided before strapping.
• 2.1.3.12 In designing or choosing a suitable package, it may
be useful to consult, wherever possible, the consignee and
obtain reports from his end about the packaging of specific
products moving on specific routes. It would also be
advisable to ascertain from consignees to what extent
handling gear, port equipment, etc. are available at the port
of destination, what inland transportation facilities are
available and if the goods have to be moved to inland
centres.

• 2.1.3.13 in export packing, consideration should be given to

the “presentation” aspect pf the package: the design, colour,
embellishment of the packages, which could produce a
favourable reaction in the export market and improve the
competitiveness of the product.
 2.1.4 MATION REQUIRED FOR PACKING

• The type of packaging required depends on the:

• Nature and type of goods;
• Volume;
• Weight;
• Number of packages;
• Types of packages;
• Mode of transport;
• Final destination.
2.1.5 Types of Packaging for Break Bulk Cargo

• The exporter or seller is usually responsible for packing the

goods for break bulk cargo, whereby a consolidated
consignment is broken down on delivery for distribution to
individual consignees. The type of packaging required for any
product varies with the nature and volume of the product as
well as the method of transport it is carried over. Generally
the following types of packaging are used:

• 2.1.5.1 Bagged Cargo

The commodity itself has to be robust to withstand outside
pressure and compression for the bags will only hold the contents
on one place and will not provide protection against external
damage.

Such commodities might typically be fertilizers, grain (rice,

maize, wheat, etc.), seeds, dried fruit, sugar, coconut; coffee,
flour, fresh vegetables, frozen offal (meat irom carcasses) flour,
copra, small items such as shells, raisins, etc., malt, salt, mineral
sands and ores, meal (fish, seed, copra, etc.) dried blood, dried
milk (casein, etc.)
2.1.5.2 Fibreboard Boxes and Cartons
• widely used for the sake of economy and efficiency
comparatively cheap

• they are able to withstand normal transport hazards and

protect the contents against loss or damage

• suitable in the case of goods carried in containers from the

point of origin to the destination provided the goods are not
fragile, but if the containers have to be unloaded at the port
of discharge for further transport to their final destination,
they may have to be placed on pallets and securely strapped
on order to protect them from pilferage and damage.
Depending upon the nature of the commodities, cartons of
the right type of suitable strength and sizes should be used.
2.1.5.3 Wooden Cases
• These have stood the test of time and their main advantage is
that they have the wail strength to support superimposed
loads.

• They are more expensive than the carton-type packing due to

the cost of wood.

• Wooden cases are particularly suitable when the goods are

carried by the conventional methods and, when they are
sensitive to heat, dampness, etc.,

• The goods may require protection by way of packing with

layers of insulating material, tar paper, sealed plastic
covering etc., There are different types of wooden cases ,
including those made of plywood, which are being
increasingly used by exporters.
2.1.5.4 Wooden Crate
These are suitable for wooden packages built like a skeleton. The open
crate can be used when the contents are sufficiently resilient to require a
minimal form of packaging to facilitate handling and stowage. Sometimes,
it is used as an outer package to consolidate fireboard boxes or give
cartons extra protection.

The skeleton crate is often used for the carriage of large pieces of
machinery.

2.1.5.5 Bales
For certain trades, the use of hessian-wrapped bales is suitable, particularly
when the product permits pressure baling or compression by banding. It is,
however, vulnerable to pilferage, damage by handling using looks, etc..

2.1.5.6 Drums, barrels, casks

These are generally used for liquids such as latex, chemicals, whisky,
detergents, oil, molasses, casings, paints, powders, granules and other
solids such as chemicals, cement, some ores and scrap metal.
2.1.5.7 Shrink Wrapping
Dry chemicals, granular and powdered substances in bags
cannot be easily strapped on to a pallet. When these items have
to be unitised, bags are stowed on the pallet and interlocked; a
polythene sheet of suitable gauge is then draped over the bags.

This unit is then passed through a tunnel oven where polythene

is heat-sealed tight, binding the bags to the pallet to form a good
unit load.

2.1.5.8 Lift Vans

When household goods such as tables, chairs, cupboards,
glassware, brassware, etc., have to be moved, especially from
one country to another, they have to be packed in "lift vans"
which are unit loads specially built for the purpose.

They are generally made of wood, lined with waterproof

material on all sides and additional metallic proofing on the roof
to prevent damage by rain and sun. These units are made to be
handled by forklift trucks and packed in ISO 20 foot containers.
2.1.5.9 Preservation Against Corrosion
Machinery when being packed for export by sea has to be
preserved against humidity and corrosion.

All the open parts are chemically treated and sometimes

greased.

The best preservation is to vacuum-seal the machine.

The machine is covered by high density polythene which is

draped aver the unit and heat-sealed.

A vacuum pump then draws the air out of the polythene and the
machine is preserved for as long as one year under vacuum.

In lift vans and other packaging, silica gel in sufficient quantity

is used, depending on the volume of the package.
2.1.5.10 Special Cargo
Kinds of Special Cargo
There are also various other types of packages designed for
• Bulk Commodities - do not require packing
special commodities moving by different forms of transport. For
• Goods of high value - mostly moved by air
example, there are special types of packages for air shipments
• Perishables and refrigerated cargo - carried in
of commodities like fresh vegetables, meat etc. Again the unit
suitable ventilated packages in temperature-
load device (ULD) system adopted for air transport includes
controlled holes or in thermal containers
containers of metal and fibre-glass as well as lightweight
• Live animals - requires special arrangements,
pallets.
such as the erection of cages
• Dangerous/Hazardous cargo - special packing,
In regard to shipments of ready-made clothes, the latest
marking and labelling,
development, garments on hangers (GOH), is that they are
carried on hangers inside containers for delivery in the same
condition as they left to the consignees' premises or to the
department stores at their destination.
2.1.6 Packing Principles Relating to Cargo in Containers
The principles below are applicable to cargo stowage in
containers carried by sea, air, road or tail.

There are a number of basic principles applicable to the stowage

of ALL cargo into containers. The maxim which summarizes
this set of principles is: safe container transport depends chiefly
on a correct and immovable stow and an even weight
distribution.

- Either the container must be stowed tightly so that lateral

and longitudinal movement of the cargo within it is impossible;
- Or else the cargo must be effectively restrained.
2.1.6.1 Tight Stowage
This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions
of the package an optimum module of the container or making
the base of a unit load a module of the container.

2.1.6.2 Restraint
It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of
the following reasons:

- To prevent collapse of the stow while packing, unpacking, or

during transit (e.g. rolls of linoleum on end);

- To stop any movement during transit of part-loads or of

single heavy items (e.g., large pieces of machinery) – the
heavier the item the mere damage it will do if allowed to
move; and

- To prevent the “face” of the stow collapsing and leaning

against the container doors to fall out when the doors are opened
at the final destination or for customs inspection.
2.1.6.3. Methods of Securing Cargo
The more common methods of securing cargo are:
• Shoring – bars, struts and spars located in the cargo voids to keep the cargo pressed against
the walls or other cargo.

• Lashing – ropes, wire, chains, strapping or netting secured to proper anchoring points and
tensioned against the cargo.

• Wedging – wooden distance pieces, pads of synthetic material, inflatable dunnage to fill
voids in the cargo and keep it immobile against the container walls.

• Locking – cargo built up to give a three-dimensional brick wall effect.

2.1.6.4 Aids to Good Securing
There is no simple formula to follow when securing cargo. Each stow must be treated on
its own merits-the type of cargo, the way it is stowed, the equipment available, or the
permanent fittings in the container. But the following points should be borne in mind
when applying restraint:

• Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasons
comply with safe loading limitation on the securing points.

• Any timber used – i.e., dunnage or filler pieces – should be dry. It may also have to
comply with certain quarantine regulations in force.

• If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should only penetrate
about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip without total
penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never use nails in a reefer
container (a refrigerated container).
• Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have
extra timber laid longitudinally between the wall and point of
support to spread the weight over two or more side posts.

• Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes

called chafe, are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking
(macerated) or, for light packages, rolled-up cardboard.

• Unless an identical stow is anticipated on the return journey

(known as a closed-circuit operation) it is best if, when lashing
equipment is chosen, it is considered re-usable.
2.1.6.5 How to Restrain Certain Types of Cargo

• Top heavy articles be wedged, shored and lashed to prevent toppling

• Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floor and side
walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired with the bottle-screws
(e.g., ½ in chain; one and a quarter in bottle screws; three ton D shackles are adequate for
lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight).

• Resilient loads can cause lashing to slacken – this may sometimes be overcome by
introducing elasticity (e.g., rubber rope) into lashing pattern.

• No securing of pallets is necessary (provided the load is properly secured to the pallet) if the
distance between pallets and container walls is 4in (100mm or less).

• Pallets must not be allowed any longitudinal movement. If it is necessary to secure them,
stow the pallets against the container walls and wedge wood blocks between the pallets.

• Kit may be necessary to insert sheets of board between the pallet loads to protect them
against chafing and prevent bags, cartons, etc., interweaving and jamming the stowage.
2.1.6.6 Stowage precautions
In the majority of case, there is a space (1”to 24”) left between the face of the cargo and the container doors. It is
important that the cargo does not collapse into this space. It can be prevented in a variety of ways such as:

a.) Using suitably positioned lashing points with the wire, rope, strapping, etc., woven across;
b.) B.) inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo; and
c.) Providing filler pieces i.e., macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood-wool pads made of line shavings and used
for packing, etc., for narrower gaps and lighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits).

• It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container doors are opened. This is particularly
relevant to a container which has been completely packed (as with cartons or sacks).

• Although this can sometimes be achieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing points located
in the door posts of general cargo container.

• Nylon strapping in polyproplylene cord or wire (1/4” diameter or less) threaded through these points forms an
effective barrier.
Other stowage precautions to be taken are:

- Securing the goods in their packages and making the

pack itself as full as possible so as to resist pressures
external.

- Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the

weight imposed upon them when stacked to a
minimum height of 8ft.

- Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed

in a container, that they are compatible and cannot
cause contamination or become contaminated.

- Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with

light and dry items on the top.
Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as
large as possible, since this can reduce costs by up to 20 per cent and increase the
efficiency in volume by up to 10 per cent.

- Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will permit
rapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading. Should the
consignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry procedures, customs
examination would be made easier and unloading avoided if the cargo were
stowed at the end of the container by the door.

- One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to be along
the centre line of the container and not at the side. It is much easier and
cheaper to restrain the shifting of cargo in this way.

A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even endanger
the ship. When stowing a container, the rule should therefore be NO SMOKING.
2.1.6.7 Load Factors
Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and
weight. However, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed
over the container floor by means of suitable bearers or dunnage as
follows:

a.) Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the

container;

b.) Length: each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least
two floor members, which run transversely under the container floor
at 1 foot centres (e.g., a 13 ton integral load would require to be
distributed over 14 floor members i.e., 14 foot run of container floor).

The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in

certain circumstances the closed end half of the container can carry
more than 65 per cent, or conversely the door-end half more than 60
per cent of the total load.