Chapter 5

TRANSDUCER AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

FOR ACCELERATION ,PRESSURE AND
TORQUE
 TRANSDUCERS
 Device when activated from one form Of energy converted to
another quantity.

 Tansducersr allow external stimulus to be brought into an

electric circuit, where it can be processed or conditioned,
and sensors.
 Transducers also allow electric circuits to provide stimulus
to the external environment, actuators.
 Types of Transducers
1.Mechanical transducers -are used for converting one
form of energy into other form that can be measured easily.
e.g. bourdon tube
2.Electrical transducers-a device that converts a physical,
mechanical or optical quantity into proportional voltage or
current quantity.
e.g. phototransistor
Classification of transducers
1. Based on principle of transduction
2. Active & passive
3. Analog & digital
4. Inverse transducer
Applications of Transducer
1.Phototransistors
2.Strain gauge
3.Bellow
4.hydro-pneumatic
5.Capsule
6.Diaphragm
7.Inductive and etc…
 Measurement Of Acceleration
The only class of device available for measuring acceleration is
the accelerometer.
These are available in a wide variety of types and ranges
designed to meet particular measurement requirements.
 They have a frequency response between zero and a high
value.
The frequency response of accelerometers can be improved by
altering the level of damping in the instrument.
accelerometers are widely used to measure mechanical
shocks and vibrations.
The accelerometer is rigidly fastened to the body
undergoing acceleration.
Any acceleration of the body causes a force, Fa, on the mass, M,
given by:

Fa = M ẍ
This force is opposed by the restraining effect, Fs, of a spring
with spring constant K, and the net result is that the mass is
displaced by a distance x from its starting position such that:
 Fs = Kx
In steady state, when the mass inside is accelerating at the same rate as the case of
the accelerometer, Fa = Fs and so:
Kx = mẍ or ẍ=Kx/m

accelerometer case
accelerating
body K
displacement

transducer

structure of an accelerometer
This is the equation of motion of a second order system, and, in
the absence of damping, the output of the accelerometer would
consist of non-decaying oscillations.
A damper is therefore included within the instrument, which
produces a damping force, Fd, proportional to the velocity of the
mass M given by:
Fd = Bẋ
This modifies the previous equation of motion to the following:
Kx+ Bẋ= Mẍ
One important characteristic of accelerometers is their
sensitivity to accelerations at right angles to the sensing axis
(the direction along which the instrument is designed to
measure acceleration).
The acceleration reading is obtained from the instrument by
measurement of the displacement of the mass within the
accelerometer.
The displacement-measuring instrument used in
accelerometers are:
* Resistive potentiometers
* Strain gauges
* piezoresistive sensors and
* piezoelectric crystals
The major advantage of using piezoelectric crystals is that they
also act as the spring and damper within the instrument.
 Recently, very small micro sensors have
become available for measuring acceleration.
These consist of a small mass subject to
acceleration that is mounted on a thin silicon
membrane. Two forms of fibre optic-based
accelerometer also exist
Cont….
One form measures the effect on light transmission intensity
caused by a mass subject to acceleration resting on a multimode
fiber.
The other form measures the change in phase of light
transmitted through a monomode fiber that has a mass subject
to acceleration resting on it.
 Selection Of Accelerometers

In choosing between the different types of accelerometer for a

particular application, the mass of the instrument is particularly
important. This should be very much less than that of the body
whose motion is being measured, in order to avoid loading
effects that affect the accuracy of the readings obtained. In this
respect, instruments based on strain gauges are best.
 Measurement Of Pressure
What is pressure ?.
The force per unit area is called the pressure.
Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most
industrial process control systems and many different types of
pressure-sensing and pressure-measurement systems are available
However, before considering these in detail, it is important to
explain some terms used in pressure measurement and to define
the difference between
* Absolute pressure,
* Gauge pressure and
* Differential pressure
Absolute pressure: This is the difference between the pressure
of the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.
Gauge pressure: This describes the difference between the
pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure. Absolute and
gauge pressure are therefore related by the expression:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, gauge pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure
changes and is therefore not a fixed quantity.
Differential pressure: This term is used to describe the
difference between two absolute pressure values, such as the
pressures at two different points within the same fluid (often
between the two sides of a flow restrictor in a system measuring
volume flow rate).
There are 3 basic methods for pressure measurement.
The first method involves balancing the unknown pressure
against the pressure produced by a column of liquid of known
density.
The second method involves allowing the unknown pressure to
act on a known area and measuring the resultant force either
directly or indirectly.
The third method involves allowing the unknown pressure to act
on an elastic member (of known area) and measuring the
resultant stress or strain. Examples of these methods are
described in the following sections.
 1.Pressure Measurements By Balancing A Column Of Liquid Of
Known Density
The simplest form of instrument for this type of measurement is the U-
tube. Consider a simple U- tube containing a liquid of density ƍ as shown
in Figure below. The points A and B are at the same horizontal level, and
the liquid at e stands at a height h, above B.
Then the pressure at A =the pressure at B = atmospheric pressure +
pressure due to column of liquid BC = atmospheric pressure + ƍgh.
If the liquid is water the unit of measure is mmH2O, and if the liquid is
mercury then the unit of measure is mmHg. The corresponding SI unit is
the Pascal and
1 mmH2O = 9.806 65 Pa
1 mmHg = 1333 pa
2 .Pressure Measurements By Allowing The Unknown Pressure To
Act On A Known Area And Measuring The Resultant Force

Dead-weight testers
The simplest technique for determining a
pressure by measuring the force that is
generated when it acts on a known area is
illustrated by the dead-weight tester, but this
system is used for calibrating instruments rather
than measuring unknown pressures.
3.pressure Measurement By Allowing The
Unknown Pressure To Act On A Flexible Member And
Measuring The Resultant Motion

The great majority of pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube,

stacked diaphragms, or a bellows to sense the pressure. The
applied pressure causes a change in the shape of the sensor that
is used to move a pointer with respect to a scale.
 Special Measurement Devices For Low Pressures

A number of special devices have been developed for

measurement of pressures in the vacuum range below
atmospheric pressure (<1.013 bar). These special devices include
*Thermocouple gauge,
* The Pirani gauge;
*The thermistor gauge,
*The McLeod gauge and
*The ionization gauge.
thermocouple gauge is one of a group of gauges working on the
thermal conductivity principal.
Thermocouple gauges are typically used to measure pressures in the range
10¯4 mbar up to 1mbar.
 Pirani gauge is similar to a thermocouple gauge but has a heated
element that consists of four coiled tungsten wires connected in
parallel. Such gauges cover the pressure range 10¯5 mbar to 1mbar.
thermistor gauge operates on identical principles to the Pirani gauge
but uses semiconductor materials for the heated elements instead of
metals. The normal pressure range covered is 10¯4 mbar to 1mbar.
Mcleod gauge: low-pressure fluid is compressed to a higher
pressure that is then read by manometer techniques. In essence,
the gauge can be visualized as a U-tube manometer that is sealed
at one end, and where the bottom of the U can be blocked at will.
Ionization gauge: is a special type of instrument used for
measuring very low pressures in the range 10¯¹³ to 10¯³ bar.
Ionization gauges are normally only used in laboratory
conditions.
High-pressure Measurement (greater than
7000 bar)
Measurement of pressures above 7000 bar is normally carried
out electrically by monitoring the change of resistance of wires of
special materials. Materials having resistance-pressure
characteristics that are suitably linear and sensitive include
manganin and gold-chromium alloys. A coil of such wire is
enclosed in a sealed, kerosene filled, flexible bellows.
 Measurement Of Torque
Measurement of applied torques is fundamental importance in
all rotating bodies to ensure that the design of the rotating
element is adequate to prevent failure under shear stresses.
Torque measurement is also a necessary part of measuring the
power transmitted by rotating shafts.
The 3 traditional methods of measuring torque consist of:-

I. Measuring the reaction forces in cradled shaft bearings

II. The prony brake method and
III. Measuring the strain induced produced in a rotating body
due to an applied torque
 I. Reaction Forces In Shaft Bearings
Any system involving torque transmission through a shaft
contains both a power source and a power absorber where the
power is dissipated.
The magnitude of the transmitted torque can be measured by
cradling either the power source or the power absorber end of
the shaft in bearings, and then measuring the reaction force, F,
and the arm length L, as shown in Figure below.
 II. Prony Brake
It is used to measure the torque in a rotating shaft and consists
of a rope wound round the shaft.
One end of the rope is attached to a spring balance and the
other end carries a load in the form of a standard mass, m.
If the measured force in the spring balance is Fs, then the
effective force, Fe, exerted by the rope on the shaft is given by:
• Fe = Mg - Fs
Cont….
If the radius of the shaft is Rs and that of the rope is Rr, then the
effective radius, Re, of the rope and drum with respect to the
axis of rotation of the shaft is given by:
Re = Rs +
The torque in the shaft, T, can then be calculated as:
T = Fe*Re
 Measurement Of Induced Strain

Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque

has been the most common method used for torque
measurement in recent years.
It is a very attractive method because it does not disturb the
measured system by introducing friction torques in the same
way as the last two methods described do.
CONT…..
The technique is ideal for measuring the stalled torque in a
shaft before rotation commences.
However, a problem is encountered in the case of rotating shafts
because a suitable method then has to be found for making the
electrical connections to the strain gauges. One solution to this
problem found in many commercial instruments is to use a
system of slip rings and brushes for this, although this increases
the cost of the instrument still further.
General purpose of transducers

• The most common are

• They are designed to fit the broadest set of application
 heavy duty/industrial pressure transducer
 high stability /high accuracy pressure transducer
 flush diaphragm pressure transducer
Torque measurement

• For measurement of torque on static components, the most effective

and simple method is to use a torque arm and a force transducer.
• If there are rapid torque fluctuations, or significant transient
accelerations of the rotating components, the above method can be
inaccurate, and it is then preferable to measure the torque on the
rotating shaft.
Torque transducer

• Are also commonly known as a torque sensor.

• A torque sensor is a transducer that converts torsional mechanical
input in to an electrical output signal.
Optical torque measurement
• Optical techniques for torque measurement have become available
recently with the development of laser diodes and fibre-optic light
transmission systems.

• Under zero torque conditions, the two pulse trains of reflected light are
in phase with each other. If torque is now applied to the shaft, the
reflected light is modulated.
• The cost of such instruments is relatively low, and an additional
advantage in many applications is their small physical size.
TYPES OF TORQUE TRANSDUCER

1. REACTION TORQUE TRANSDUCERS

 are used to measure torque loads where the sensor does not have
to rotate or rotates through a limited number of rotation.
Some application of reaction torque are; motor to pump torque, valves,
actuators , steering gears and gear reducers.
2. ROTORY TORQUE TRANSDUCERS
 are used in application where the torque transducer must rotate
,such as when attached to a spinning shaft.
3. ROLLER TRANSDUCER
 are used in testing metallic and non-metallic materials for bonding.
 can be ordered with either a single or dual yoke design.
 are used in through transmission mode for fast linear scans of parts.
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
WHAT IS A PRESSURE TRANSDUCER ?
 A Pressure transducer , sometimes called a pressure transmitter .
 A Pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure in to an
analogy electrical signal .
 A Pressure transducer are generally available with there types of
electrical output ; millivolt , amplified voltage and 4-20mA.
 MILLIVOLT PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

The most economical pressure transducers with a low out put signal ,
the actual out put is directly proportional to the pressure transducer
in put power or excitation.
VOLTAGE OUT PUT TRANSDUCER

Includes integral signal conditionally for a much higher out put

,normally 0.5vd or 0-10vdc , and can be used in a much more
industrial environment.
General types of Transducers used in electronics

 Electromagnetic
ANTENNA : electromagnetic waves to electrical signal:
 Hall effect sensor: magnetic field to electrical signal
 magnetic cartridge: physical motion to electrical signal
 Electro mechanical
potentional meter: used for measuring position
load cell: force to electrical signal using strain gage
Continued

Electro acoustic
 speaker , ear phone : converts electrical signal into sound
 microphone : converts sound into an electrical signal
 pick up (music technology) : converts motion of metal strings in to
an electrical signal
Continued

Electro optical
 fluorescent lamp :converts electrical power into incoherent light
 cathode ray tube (CRT) :converts electrical signal into visual signals
 laser diode : converts electrical power into coherent light
 photo diode :converts changing light levels into electrical signal
Continued

Radio acoustic
 Geiger ( Muller tube) converts incident ionizing radiation to an
electrical impulse signal
 transmitter : propagates electromagnetic transmission into
sound
Thermo electric
Thermo couple : converts temperature into electric signal