NAME: RIMSHA IFTIKHAR

FATHER NAME: IFTIKHAR HUSSAIN

CLASS: BSC(H) 2ND YEAR
COURSE NUMBER: 414
SEAT #: H1821097
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: MA’AM RABIA NAJAM
DATE: 10/MARCH/2021
 COURSE: INTRODUCTORY NUCLEAR PHYSICS
TOPICS:
• NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION
• FISSION
• FUSION
• NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• NUCLEAR REACTORS
• HALF LIFE
• DISINTEGRATION
 NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION
IT IS AREA AROUND THE NUCLEUS ON WHICH IF INCIDENT PARTICLES ARE
INCIDENT ON IT THEN IT WILL MOST DEFINITELY LEAD TO AN INTERACTION WITH
THE NUCLEUS AND ALL THE OTHER INCIDENT PARTICLES OUTSIDE THIS AREA
WILL PENETRATE THROUGH WITHOUT INTERACTING.
•DEPENDING FACTORS:
1. KIND OF INCIDENT PARTICLES: ELECTRON, PROTON, NEUTRON
2. ENERGY OF THE INCIDENT PARTICLES
•UNIT: BARN
1 BARN= 1B= 10-28 M^2
•GREATER THE NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION MORE LIKELIHOOD OF INTERACTION AND NUCLEAR
REACTION.
•AREA OF CROSS SECTION COULD BE GREATER OR LESS OR EQUALS TO THE ACTUAL SIZE OF
THE NUCLEUS. DEPEND UPON THE NATURE OF NUCLEAR INTERACTION.
 FISSION
IT IS SIMPLY A REACTION IN WHICH NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM SPLITS RELEASING ENERGY
AND RADIOACTIVITY.
• THE PRODUCT OF REACTION HAS THE LESS MASS THAN THE STARTING ATOM THAT IS;
•   INITIAL MASS > MASS AFTER SPLIT
• EINSTEIN’S EQUATION: E SHOWS THAT THIS SMALL DECREASE IN MASS IS CONVERTED INTO
HUGE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY.
THIS IS A CHAIN REACTION: EXAMPLE:

Huge amount of energy release. To utilize this energy we have to control the reaction.
APPLICATION:
FISSION IS USING IN POWER PLANTS AND DUE TO THIS WE ARE GENERATION ENERGY.
ISOTOPES AND NEUTRONS CAN BE USED IN VARIOUS FIELDS.

DISADVANTAGE:
THE DISADVANTAGE OF FISSION IS THAT RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE GENERATE
A LOT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE WHICH IS HARMFUL FOR ENVIRONMENT
 FUSION
IN THIS PROCESS THE LIGHTER NUCLEI COMBINE TO FORM HEAVY NUCLEUS. LARGE AMOUNT
OF ENERGY IS RELEASED IN IT.

WHY FUSION IS NOT USED FOR GENERATING ENERGY:

• FUSION IS NOT USED TO MAKE ENERGY BECAUSE TO DO FUSION THERE IS A LOT AMOUNT OF ENERGY
REQUIRED AND THIS AMOUNT OF ENERGY IS GREATER THAN THE ENERGY PRODUCED BY FUSION.
• ALSO FUSION REQUIRES HIGH PRESSURE AND HIGH TEMPERATURE (UPTO 150,000,000 DEGREES) WHICH IS
EXTREMELY DIFFICULT ON EARTH TO CREATE SUCH CONDITION.
• AND SO OF WE MANAGE TO CREATE IT WE DON’T KNOW HOW TO STOP THIS.
• IT IS ALSO VERY COSTLY
WHAT IF IT IS POSSIBLE TO CREATE ENERGY BY FUSION:
IF WE COULD CREATE THE REQUIRED CONDITION AND MAKE IT POSSIBLE SO ONLY A SINGLE GLASS
OF WATER CAN PRODUCE SO MUCH AMOUNT OF ENERGY.

→ MOREOVER NOT ALL HYDROGEN ATOM COULD DO FUSION.

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
IT IS A PROCESS THAT CREATE NEW ATOMIC NUCLEI FROM PRE-EXISTING NUCLEONS
(PROTONS AND NEUTRONS) AND NUCLEI.
TYPES OF NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:
1) BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
2) STELLER NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
3) SUPER NOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS.
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:
EARLY ACT OF THE BIG BANG WHEN THE UNIVERSE WAS COOLING AND EXPANDING FIRST ELEMENT WERE FORMED, THEY
WERE NUCLEI OF ELEMENTS NOT FULL ATOMS. EX: HYDROGEN AND HELIUM.
AFTER MORE COOLING OR EXPANSION THE HELIUM AND HYDROGEN NUCLEI WERE ABLE TO ATTRACT AND HOLD ON TO
ELECTRON. BY WHICH THEY FORM FULL ATOMS AND WE HAVE THEM IN OUR PERIODIC TABLE TODAY.

STELLER NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:
IN THIS ELEMENTS ARE FORMED IN THE CENTER OF STARS AND THERE IS EXTREMELY HOT ALSO CONTAIN EXTREME
AMOUNT OF PRESSURE. THERE ELEMENTS ARE FORMED THROUGH THE PROCESS OF FUSION.
THE ABUNDANCE OF THESE ELEMENTS CHANGES AS THE STAR EVOLVED .

SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:
WHEN THE CORE CAN NO LONGER PRODUCE ENERGY TO RESIST GRAVITY, THE STAR IS
DOOMED.
GRAVITY SQUEEZES THE CORE UNTIL THE STAR EXPLODES AND RELEASES A LARGE AMOUNT OF
ENERGY. THE STAR EXPLOSION IS CALLED A SUPERNOVA.
WHEN A STAR UNDERGOES A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION, IT DIES LEAVING BEHIND EITHER A
NEUTRON STAR OR A BLACK HOLE.
 NUCLEAR REACTORS
A NUCLEAR REACTOR IS THE SOURCE OF INTENSE HEAT WHICH IS IN TURN USED FOR GENERATING OF
POWER STATION.
ITS MECHANISM IS SIMILAR TO FURNANCE OF STEAM GENERATOR IN WHICH STEAM IS USED TO DRIVE THE
TURBINES OF THE STEAM GENERATOR.
 CRUCIAL COMPONENT:
 FUEL ELEMENTS
 MODERATOR
 CONTROL RODS
FUEL ELEMENTS: THEY COME IN SHAPE OF THIN RODS 1CM IN DIAMETER AND CONTAIN FISSIONABLE
NUCLEI, LIKE URANIUM. THE REGION WHERE RODS ARE PLACED ARE CALLED REACTOR CORE.
MODERATOR: THE FUEL ELEMENTS ARE NORMALLY EMERGE IN WATER WHICH ACTS AS MODERATOR AND
SLOW DOWN THE ENERGY OF THE NEUTRON. MODERATOR IS EXTREMELY USEFUL. ORDINARY OR HEAVY
WATER IS NORMALLY USED.
CONTROL RODS: THEY ARE USED TO ABSORB EXCESS NEUTRONS AND TO CONTROL THE REACTION. BORON
OR CADMIUM IS GENERALLY USED.
 WORKING:

→ By this nuclear reactor a lot amount of

electrical energy is produce.
 DISINTEGRATION
IT OCCUR WHEN ATOM OF UNSTABLE COMBINATION OF PROTON AND NEUTRON TRIED TO
STABLE ITSELF BY LOSING ENERGY, PARTICLE OR BINDING ENERGY.
→ IT MEASURED IN NUMBER OF DISINTEGRATION PER SECOND.
→ THE ENERGY RELEASED DURING DECAY IS CALLED DISINTEGRATION ENERGY.
→ PROBABILITY FOR PER UNIT DECAY OF NUCLEI FIXED BUT CHANGE FOR EVERY ELEMENT.
→ RATE OF DECAY OF ATOM DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO NUMBER OF ATOMS PRESENT.
→ THE RATE OF DECAY OF ATOM DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO NUMBER OF ATOMS PRESENT.
→ THE RATE OF DECAY OF ATOM DECREASE WITH THE INCREASE IN TIME.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF DECAY:
 Α DECAY
 Β DECAY
 Γ DECAY
 HALF LIFE
RATE OF DECAY AND HALF LIFE OF A QUANTITY SUBJECT TWO
EXPONENTIAL DECAY IS THAT TIME REQUIRED FOR THE
QUANTITY MASS NUMBER OF ATOM OR ACTIVITY TO DECAY
TO HALF OF ITS INITIAL VALUE.IT IS A CHARACTERISTICS CONSTANT.
IT MEASURES THE TIME IT TAKES FOR A GIVEN AMOUNT OF
THE SUBSTANCE TO REDUCED TO HALF BY DECAY.
USES:
• ARCHEOLOGIST AND GEOLOGIST USE HALF LIFE TODAY
THE AGE OF ORGANIC OBJECTS IN A PROCESS KNOWN
AS CARBON DATING.
• IN MEDICAL FIELD THE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES COBALT
60 HAS BEEN USED FOR RADIOTHERAPY TO SHRINK TUMOR
THAT WILL LATER BE SURGICALLY REMOVED OR TO DESTROY
CANCER CELLS.