ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE of ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE of
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES
(ECEG - 3282 )
 Introduction
☞ Electromagnetic energy conversion occurs when changes in the flux linkage λ
result from mechanical motion.
☞ In rotating machines, voltages are generated in windings or groups of
coils by rotating these windings mechanically through a magnetic field,
by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the winding, or by designing
the magnetic circuit, so that the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor.
☞ By any of these methods, the flux linking a specific coil is changed
cyclically, and a time-varying voltage is generated.
☞ A set of such coils connected together is typically referred to as an
armature winding.
 Introduction
☞In general, the term armature winding is used to refer to a winding
or a set of windings on a rotating machine which carry ac currents.
☞In ac machines such as synchronous or induction machines, the
armature winding is typically on the stationary portion of the motor
referred to as the stator, in which case these windings may also be
referred to as stator windings.
☞In a dc machine, the armature winding is found on the rotating
member, referred to as the rotor. The armature winding of a dc
machine consists of many coils connected together to form a closed
loop. A rotating mechanical contact is used to supply current to the
armature winding as the rotor rotates.
 Introduction
☞ Synchronous and dc machines typically include a second winding (or
set of windings)
☞ which carry dc current and which are used to produce the main
operating flux in the machine.
☞ Such a winding is typically referred to as field winding.
☞ The field winding on a dc machine is found on the stator, while that
on a synchronous machine is found on the rotor, in which case
current must be supplied to the field winding via a rotating
mechanical contact.
☞ Permanent magnets also produce dc magnetic flux and are used in the
place of field windings in some machines.
 Introduction
☞In most rotating machines, the stator and rotor are made of electrical steel,
and the windings are installed in slots on these structures.
☞The use of high-permeability material maximizes the coupling between the
coils and increases the magnetic energy density associated with the
electromechanical interaction.
☞The time- varying flux present in the armature structures of these machines
tends to induce currents, known as eddy currents, in the electrical steel.
☞In order to minimize the effects of eddy currents, the armature structure is
typically built from thin laminations of electrical steel which are insulated
from each other.
☞The stator core of an ac motor being constructed as a stack of individual
laminations.
 Introduction
• Rotating electric machines take many forms and are known by many
names: dc, synchronous, permanent-magnet, induction, variable reluctance,
hysteresis, brush- less, and so on.
• Although these machines appear to be quite dissimilar, the physical principles
governing their behavior are quite similar, and it is often helpful to
think of them in terms of the same physical picture. For example,
analysis of a dc machine shows that associated with both the rotor and the stator are
magnetic flux distributions which are fixed in space and that the torque-producing
characteristic of the dc machine stems from the tendency of these flux distributions
to align.
An induction machine, in spite of many fundamental differences, works on exactly
the same principle; one can identify flux distributions associated with the rotor
and stator.
Although they are not stationary but rather rotate in synchronism, just as in a dc
motor they are displaced by a constant angular separation, and torque is produced
by the tendency of these flux distribution to align.
 Introduction To Ac Machines

☞Traditional ac machines fall into one of two categories: synchronous

and induction (Asynchronous).
☞In synchronous machines, rotor-winding currents are supplied directly
from the stationary frame through a rotating contact.
☞In induction machines, rotor currents are induced in the rotor windings
by a combination of the time-variation of the stator currents and the
motion of the rotor relative to the stator.
 Synchronous Machines
 Consider a simplified salient-pole ac synchronous generator shown
schematically in Figure .
 The field-winding of this Synchronous machines produces a single
pair of magnetic poles (similar to that of a bar magnet), and hence
this machine is referred to as a two-pole machine.
 With rare exceptions, the armature winding
of a synchronous machine is on the stator,
and the field winding is on the rotor.
 The field winding is excited by direct
current conducted to it by means of
stationary carbon brushes which contact
rotating slip rings or collector rings.
Figure Schematic view of a simple, two-pole,
single-phase synchronous generator.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 
The armature winding, consisting here of only a single coil of N turns, is
indicated in cross section by the two coil sides and - placed in
diametrically opposite narrow slots on the inner periphery of the stator of
Figure .
 The conductors forming these coil sides are
parallel to the shaft of the machine and are
connected in series by end connections (not shown
in the figure).
 The rotor is turned at a constant speed by a source
of mechanical power connected to its shaft.
 The armature winding is assumed to be open-
circuited and hence the flux in this machine is
produced by the field winding alone. Flux paths are
shown schematically by dashed lines in Figure .
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 
Assume a sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux in the air gap.
 The resultant radial distribution of air-gap flux density B is shown in Fig(a) as a
function of the spatial angle (measured with respect to the magnetic axis of the
armature winding) around the rotor periphery.
 As the rotor rotates, the flux-linkages of the armature winding
change with time.
 Under the assumption of a sinusoidal flux distribution and constant
rotor speed, the resulting coil voltage will be sinusoidal in time as
shown in Fig(b). The coil voltage passes through a complete cycle
for each revolution of the two-pole machine.
 Its frequency in cycles per second (Hz) is the same as the speed of
the rotor in revolutions per second: the electric frequency of the
generated voltage is synchronized with the mechanical speed, and
this is the reason for the designation "synchronous" machine.
 Thus a two-pole synchronous machine must revolve at 3600
revolutions per minute to produce a 60-Hz voltage.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 Many synchronous machines have more than two poles as shown in Fig. a.

Figure a. Schematic view of a

simple, four-pole, single-phase
synchronous generator.

Figure b. Space distribution of the air-gap flux density in a

idealized, four-pole synchronous generator.
 The field coils are connected so that the poles are of alternate polarity. There are two
complete wavelengths, or cycles, in the flux distribution around the periphery, as shown in
Fig. b.
 The armature winding now consists of two coils ,and , connected in series by their end
connections.
 The span of each coil is one wavelength of flux. The generated voltage now goes through
two complete cycles per revolution of the rotor.
 The frequency in hertz will thus be twice the speed in revolutions per second.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 
When a machine has more than two poles, it is convenient to concentrate on a
single pair of poles and to recognize that the electric, magnetic, and mechanical
conditions associated with every other pole pair are repetitions of those for the
pair under consideration.
 For this reason it is convenient to express angles in electrical degrees or
electrical radians rather than in physical units.
 One pair of poles in a multipole machine or one cycle of flux distribution
equals 360 electrical degrees or 2 electrical radians. Since there are poles/2
complete wavelengths, or cycles, in one complete revolution, it follows, for
example, that

where is the angle in electrical units and is the spatial angle.

 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 
The coil voltage of a multipole machine passes through a complete cycle
every time a pair of poles sweeps by, or (poles/2) times each revolution.
 The electrical frequency of the voltage generated in a synchronous machine
is therefore

where n is the mechanical speed in revolutions per minute, and hence

n/60 is the speed in revolutions per second.
 The electrical frequency of the generated voltage in radians per second is
= (poles/2)
where is the mechanical speed in radians per second.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 The rotors shown in above Figs. (2 and 4 pole Figs.) have salient, or projecting
poles with concentrated windings.
 The following Fig. shows diagrammatically a nonsalient-pole, or cylindrical
rotor.

Figure Elementary two-pole cylindrical-rotor field winding.

 The field winding is a two-pole distributed winding; the coil sides are
distributed in multiple slots around the rotor periphery and arranged to
produce an approximately sinusoidal distribution of radial air-gap flux.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 For the production of a set of three voltages phase-displaced by 120
electrical degrees in time, a minimum of three coils phase-displaced
120 electrical degrees in space must be used.
 The three phases are designated by the letters a, b, and c.
 In an elementary four-pole machine, a minimum of two such sets of
coils must be used; in an elementary multipole machine, the
minimum number of coils sets is given by one half the number of
poles.
 The two coils in each phase are connected in series so that their
voltages add, and the three phases may then be either Y- or ∆-
connected.
 Note however, since the voltages in the coils of each phase are
identical, a parallel connection is also possible, e.g., coil (, - ) in
parallel with coil (', - '), and so on.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 Alternating current is supplied to the armature winding on the stator, and dc
excitation is supplied to the field winding on the rotor.
 The magnetic field produced by the armature currents rotates at synchronous
speed.
 To produce a steady electromechanical torque, the magnetic fields of the
stator and rotor must be constant in amplitude and stationary with respect to
each other.
 In a synchronous motor, the steady-state speed is determined by the number of
poles and the frequency of the armature current. Thus a synchronous motor
operated from a constant-frequency ac source will operate at a constant steady-
state speed.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 When a synchronous generator supplies electric power to a load, the armature
current creates a magnetic flux wave in the air gap which rotates at synchronous
speed.
 This flux reacts with the flux created by the field current, and electromechanical
torque results from the tendency of these two magnetic fields to align.
 In a generator this torque opposes rotation, and mechanical torque must be
applied from the prime mover to sustain rotation. This electromechanical torque
is the mechanism through which the synchronous generator converts
mechanical to electric energy.
 Synchronous Machines Cont’d
 In a motor the electromechanical torque is in the direction of rotation and
balances the opposing torque required to drive the mechanical load.
 The flux produced by currents in the armature of a synchronous motor rotates
ahead of that produced by the field, thus pulling on the field (and hence on the
rotor) and doing work.
 This is the opposite of the situation in a synchronous generator, where the field
does work as its flux pulls on that of the armature, which is lagging behind.
 In both generators and motors, an electromechanical torque and a rotational
voltage are produced. These are the essential phenomena for electromechanical
energy conversion.
 Induction Machines
 In contrast to a synchronous machine in which a field winding on the rotor is
excited with dc current, alternating currents flow in the rotor windings of an
induction machine.
 In induction machines, alternating currents are applied directly to the stator
windings.
 Rotor currents are then produced by induction, i.e., transformer action.
 The induction machine may be regarded as a generalized transformer in which
electric power is transformed between rotor and stator together with a change of
frequency and a flow of mechanical power.
 Although the induction motor is the most common of all motors, it is seldom
used as a generator; its performance characteristics as a generator are
unsatisfactory for most applications,
 The induction machine may also be used as a frequency changer.
 Induction Machines Cont’d
 In the induction motor, the stator windings are essentially the same as those of a
synchronous machine.
 However, the rotor windings are electrically short-circuited and frequently have
no external connections; currents are induced by transformer action from the
stator winding.
 Here the rotor "windings" are actually solid aluminum bars which are cast into
the slots in the rotor and which are shorted together by cast aluminum rings at
each end of the rotor.
 This type of rotor construction results in induction motors which are relatively
inexpensive and highly reliable, factors contributing to their immense
popularity and widespread application.
 Induction Machines Cont’d
 As in a synchronous motor, the armature flux in the induction motor leads that of the rotor
and produces an electromechanical torque.
 In fact, we will see that, just as in a synchronous machine, the rotor and stator fluxes rotate in
synchronism with each other and that torque is related to the relative displacement between
them.
 However, unlike a synchronous machine, the rotor of an induction machine does not itself
rotate synchronously; it is the "slipping" of the rotor with respect to the synchronous
armature flux that gives rise to the induced rotor currents and hence the torque.
 Induction motors operate at speeds less than the synchronous mechanical speed.
 Induction Machines Cont’d
 In order to generate power the rotor speed must be slightly above the synchronous speed
 The harder the rotor is cranked, the more power will be fed into the electrical grid
The Slip

 Where s is the slip. Slip is one of the most important variables in the control and operation
of induction machines.
s = 0: if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s = 1: if the rotor is stationary
s is –ve : if the rotor runs at a speed above the synchronous speed
s is +ve : if the rotor runs at a speed below the synchronous speed
 Induction Machines Cont’d
 Depending on the value of slip, an IM can have the following operating regions.
a) Motoring mode, 1 > S > 0 :- the corresponding speed values are ZERO (s =
1.0) and synchronous speed (S = 0).
b) Generating mode , S < 0 :- the rotor speed is above synchronous speed.
c) Breaking mode , S > 1 :- This condition can be achieved by driving the rotor
with a prime mover opposite to the direction of rotating magnetic field. ( eg.
plugging action)
 The rotating magnetic field
• The basic idea of an electric motor is to generate two magnetic fields: rotor
magnetic field and stator magnetic field and make the stator field rotor magnetic
field and stator magnetic field and make the stator field rotating.
 In this situation, the rotor will constantly turning to align its magnetic field with
the stator field.
 The fundamental principle of AC machine operation is to make a 3-phase set of
currents, each of equal magnitude and with a phase difference of , to flow in a 3-
phase winding.
 In this situation, a constant magnitude rotating field will be generated.
 The 3phase winding consists of 3 separate windings spaced The 3-phase winding
consists of 3 separate windings spaced apart around the surface of the machine.
 The rotating magnetic field
• Consider
  a simple 3-phase stator containing
three coils, each apart. Such a winding will
produce only one north and one south
magnetic pole; therefore, this motor would be
called a two pole motor.
• Assume that the currents in three coils are:

Therefore, the current through the coil produces

the magnetic field intensity
 The rotating magnetic field
• where the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity is changing over time, while is the
spatial angle of the magnetic field intensity vector. The direction of the field can be
determined by the right-hand rule.
Note, that while the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity varies sinusoidally over time,
its direction is always constant. Similarly, the magnetic fields through two other coils are

The magnetic flux densities resulting fromthese magnetic field intensities can be
found from
 The rotating magnetic field
• At
  the time t = 0 (ωt = 0) :

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be

• At the time ωt = :

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be
 The rotating magnetic field
• We note that the magnitude of the magnetic field is constant but its
direction changes.
• Therefore, the constant magnitude magnetic field is rotating in a
counterclockwise direction.
 The rotating magnetic field
•  The magnetic flux density in the stator at any arbitrary moment is given by
☞

☞Each vector can be represented as a sum of x and y components:

☞Which can be rewritten in form

☞Finally:

☞The net magnetic field has a constant magnitude and rotates counterclockwise at the
angular velocity ω.
 Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on an AC machine
•  The reluctance of the air gap is much higher than the reluctance of either the rotor or the
☞
stator; therefore, the flux density vector B takes the shortest path across the air gap: it will
be perpendicular to both surfaces of rotor and stator.
☞To produce a sinusoidal voltage in this machine, the magnitude of the flux density vector
B must vary sinusoid-ally along the surface of the air gap. Therefore, the magnetic field
intensity (and the mmf) will vary sinusoid-ally along the air gap surface
☞One obvious way to achieve a sinusoidal variation of mmf along the air gap surface would
be to distribute the turns of the winding that produces the mmf in closely spaced slots along
the air gap surface and vary the number of conductors in each slot sinusoid-ally, according
to:

☞where is the number of conductors at the angle of 00 and α is the angle along the surface.
☞However, in practice, only a finite number of slots and integer numbers of conductors are
possible. As a result, real mmf will approximate the ideal mmf if this approach is taken.
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a two-pole stator
☞Assume that a rotor with a sinusoidally distributed magnetic
field rotates in the center of a stationary coil.
☞We further assume that the magnitude of the flux density B
in the air gap between the rotor and the stator varies
sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while its direction is
always radially outward.
 ☞Note, that this is an ideal flux
distribution.
☞ The magnitude of the flux
density vector at a point
around the rotor is

Where α is the angle from the

direction of peak flux intensity.
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a two-pole stator
•☞  Since the rotor is rotating within the stator at an angular velocity . the magnitude of
the flux density vector at any angle α around the stator is

☞ The voltage induced in a wire is

☞ Here v is the velocity of the wire relative to the magnetic field

B is the magnetic flux density vector
l is the length of conductor in the magnetic field
☞ However, this equation was derived for a moving wire in a stationary magnetic
field. In our situation, the wire is stationary and the magnetic field rotates.
☞ Therefore, the equation needs to be modified: we need to change reference such
way that the field appears as stationary.
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a two-pole stator
•☞  The total voltage induced in the coil is a sum of the voltages induced in each of its
four sides. These voltages are:
1. Segment ab: α= 1800; assuming that B is radially outward from the rotor, the angle
between v and B is 900, so

2. Segment bc: the voltage will be zero since the vectors (v x B) and l are perpendicular

3. Segment cd: α= 00; assuming that B is radially outward from the rotor, the angle
between v and B is 900, so

4. Segment da: the voltage will be zero since the vectors (v x B) and l are perpendicular
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a two-pole stator
•☞  Therefore, the total voltage on the coil is:

☞Since the velocity of the end conductor is

☞Then:

☞The flux passing through a coil is

☞Therefore:

☞Finally, if the stator coil has turns of wire, the total induced voltage in the coil
 The Induced Voltage in a 3-phase Set of Coils
•☞  In three coils, each of turns, placed around the rotor magnetic field, the induced in
each coil will have the same magnitude and phases differing by :

☞ A 3-phase set of currents can generate a uniform rotating magnetic field in a

machine stator, and a uniform rotating magnetic field can generate a 3-phase set of
voltages in such stator.
 The rms voltage in a 3-phase stator
•☞  The peak voltage in any phase of a 3-phase stator is:

☞ For a 2-pole stator:

☞ Thus:

☞ The rms voltage in any phase of a 2-pole 3-phase stator is:

☞The rms voltage at the terminals will depend on the type of stator connection: if the
stator is Y-connected, the terminal voltage will be . For the delta connection, it will
be just
 Induced voltage: Example
Example: The peak flux density of the rotor magnetic field in a simple 2-pole 3-phase
generator is 0.2 T; the mechanical speed of rotation is 3600 rpm; the stator diameter is
0 5 m; the length of its coil is 0.3 m and each coil consists of 15 turns of wire. The
machine is Y-connected.
a) What are the 3-phase voltages of the generator as a function of time?
b) What is the rms phase voltage of the generator?
c) What is the rms terminal voltage of the generator?
 Solution
☞
•   The flux in this machine is given by

☞ The rotor speed is

a) The magnitude of the peak phase voltage is

and the three phase voltages are:

b) The rms voltage of the generator is

c) For a Y-connected generator, its terminal voltage is

 Induced torque in an AC machine
☞ In an AC machine under normal operating conditions two magnetic fields are
present: a field from the rotor and a field from the stator circuits.
☞ The interaction of these magnetic fields produces the torque in the machine these
magnetic fields produces the torque in the machine.
 ☞Assuming a sinusoidal stator flux distribution
peaking in the upward direction

where is the magnitude of the peak flux density and a

single coil of wire mounted on the rotor, the induced
force on the first conductor (on the right) is

The torque on this conductor is (counterclockwise)

 Induced torque in an AC machine
•☞  The induced force on the second conductor (on the left) is

☞The torque on this conductor is (counter-clockwise)

☞Therefore, the torque on the rotor loop is

We may notice the following:

☞The current i flowing in the rotor coil produces its own magnetic field, whose
magnitude is proportional to the current and direction can be found via the
Right Hand Rule.
☞The angle between the peak of the stator flux density and the peak of the
magnetic field intensity is γ.
 Induced torque in an AC machine
•☞  Furthermore,

☞Therefore, the torque on the loop is

☞Here K is a constant dependent on the machine design. Therefore:

☞Since

☞ As before, in the above equation k = K/μ is a constant dependent on the

machine design.
 Induced torque in an AC machine
•☞  The above equation can be applied to any AC machine, not just to simple one
loop rotors. Since this equation is used for qualitative studies of torque, the
constant k is not important.
☞ Assuming no saturation, the net magnetic field is a vector sum of rotor and
stator fields:

☞ Combining the last two equation, we arrive at

☞ Since the cross-product of any vector with itself is zero

 Induced torque in an AC machine
•☞  Assuming that the angle between the
rotor and stator magnetic fields is δ:

☞ Assume that the rotor of the AC machine

is rotating counter-clockwise and the
configuration of magnetic fields is
shown.
☞ The combination of the above equation
and the Right Hand Rule shows that the
torque will be clockwise, i.e. opposite to
the direction of rotation of the rotor.
Therefore, this machine must be acting as
a generator.
 AC Machine Power Flows and Losses
• 
☞ The efficiency of an AC machine is defined as

☞ Since the difference between the input and output powers of a machine is due
to the losses occurring inside it, the efficiency is
 AC Machine Power Losses
•☞  Losses occurring in an AC machine can be divided into four categories:
1. Electrical or Copper losses
☞ These losses are resistive heating losses that occur in the stator (armature)
winding and in the rotor (field) winding of the machine. For a 3-phase
machine, the stator copper losses and synchronous rotor copper losses are:

☞ Where and are currents flowing in each armature phase and in the field
winding respectively. and are resistances of each armature phase and of the
field winding respectively. These resistances are usually measured at normal
operating temperature.
 AC Machine Power Losses
2. Core losses
☞ These losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B2
(flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).
3. Mechanical losses
☞ There are two types of mechanical losses: friction (friction of the bearings)
and windage (friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air
inside the casing). These losses are often lumped together and called the no-
load rotational loss of the machine. They vary as the cube of rotation speed n3
☞ 4. Stray (miscellaneous) losses
☞ These are the losses that cannot be classified in any of the previous
categories. They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many
machines, stray losses are assumed as 1% of full load
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits

•  The voltage is the internal voltage generated produced in one phase of a
synchronous generator. However, this voltage is not usually the voltage that
appears at the terminals of the generator.
 There are many factors that cause the difference between and .
1. The distortion of the air gap magnetic filed by the current flowing in the
stator called Armature Reaction.
2. The self inductance of the armature coils.
3. The resistance of the armature coils.
4. The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits
•  When the rotor of a synchronous

generator is spinning, a voltage is
induced in its stator. When a load
is connected, a current starts
flowing creating a magnetic field
in machine’s stator. This stator
magnetic field adds to the rotor
(main) magnetic field affecting
the total magnetic field and,
therefore, the phase voltage.
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits
•  Assuming that the generator is connected to a lagging load, the load current

will create a stator magnetic field, which will produce the armature reaction
voltage. Therefore, the phase voltage will be

The net magnetic flux will be

Note that the directions of the net magnetic flux and the phase voltage are the
same.
Assuming that the load reactance is X, the armature reaction voltage is

The phase voltage is then

 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits
•  Armature reactance can be modeled by the following circuit…

 However, in addition to armature reactance effect,

 The stator coil has a self-inductance ( is the corresponding reactance) and the
stator has resistance. The phase voltage is thus
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits
•  Often, armature reactance and self-
inductance are combined into the
synchronous reactance of the machine:

 Therefore, the phase voltage is

 The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase

synchronous generator is shown.
 The adjustable resistor controls the field
current and, therefore, the rotor
magnetic field
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits
•  A synchronous generator can be Y- or ∆-connected:

 The terminal voltage will be

- for Y - for ∆
 Synchronous-Machine Inductances; Equivalent Circuits

 Note: the discussion above assumed a balanced load on the generator.

 Since – for balanced loads – the three phases of a synchronous generator
are identical except for phase angles, per-phase equivalent circuits are often
used.
 The Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator

 Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are

usually expressed as phasors. A vector plot of voltages and currents within
one phase is called a phasor diagram.
 
A phasor diagram of a synchronous generator
with a unity power factor (resistive load)
 Lagging power factor (inductive load): a larger
than for leading PF internal generated voltage is
needed to form the same phase voltage.
 Leading power factor (capacitive load): For a
given field current and magnitude of load
current, the terminal voltage is lower for lagging
loads and higher for leading loads.
 Power and torque in synchronous generators
•  A synchronous generator needs to be connected to a prime mover whose speed is

reasonably constant (to ensure constant frequency of the generated voltage) for
various loads.
The applied mechanical power
is partially converted to electricity
Where γ is the angle between and.
 Power and torque in synchronous generators
 The difference between the input power to the generator and the
power converted in generator is mechanical (friction & windage),
core and stray losses.

Real output power is

Pout  3VT I L cos  (Line quantities)

Pout  3V I A cos  (Phase quantities)

Reactive output power is

Qout  3VT I L sin  (Line quantities)

Qout  3V I A sin  (Phase quantities)

Power and torque in synchronous generators
If the armature resistance RA is ignored (since Xs >> RA)
Power and torque in synchronous generators
Since the resistances are assumed to be zero
3V E A sin 
Pconv  Pout  P 
Xs

Where torque angle, δ is the angle between VФ and EA

The power of the generator is maximum when δ = 900
3V E A
Pmax 
Xs
The maximum power indicated by this equation
called static stability limit of the generator.
The induced torque is
3V E A sin 
ind 
m X s
 The Synchronous Generator Operating Alone
•  Generally, when a load on a synchronous generator is added, the following
changes can be observed.
1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage decreases
significantly.
2. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage
decreases slightly.
3. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage rises.
 Effects of adding loads can be described by the voltage regulation:

Where is the no-load voltage of the generator and is its full-load voltage.
 Example: A 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected six-pole synchronous generator has
a per-phase synchronous reactance of 1.0 Ω. Its full-load armature current
is 60 A at 0.8 PF lagging. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW and
core losses are 1.0 kW at 60 Hz at full load. Assume that the armature
resistance (and, therefore, the I2R losses) can be ignored. The field current
has been adjusted such that the no load terminal voltage is 480 V.
a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?
b) What is the terminal voltage of the generator if
1. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF lagging;
2. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PF;
3. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF leading.
c) What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical losses)
when it is operating at the rated current and 0.8 PF lagging?
d) How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at the full load? how
large is the induced counter-torque?
e) What is the voltage regulation of this generator at 0.8 PF lagging? at 1.0 PF? at 0.8
PF leading?
 Solution
☞
•   Since the generator is Y-connected, its phase voltage is

☞ At no load, the armature current = 0 and the internal generated voltage is = 277 V and it is
constant since the field current was initially adjusted that way.

a) The speed of rotation of a synchronous generator is

 Solution
 b.1)For the generator at the rated current and the
0.8 PF lagging, the phasor diagram is shown. The
phase voltage is at , the magnitude of is 277 V,

•and
  that
Two unknown quantities are the magnitude of and the angle δ of . From the phasor
diagram:

Then,

Since the generator is Y-connected,

 Solution

b.2) For the generator atthe rated current and

the 1.0 PF, the phasor diagram is shown.
• 
Then,

Since the generator is Y-connected,

b.3 ) For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8
PF leading, the phasor diagram is shown.
Then,

Since the generator is Y-connected,

 Solution
 
c) The output power of the generator at 60 A and 0.8 PF lagging is

The mechanical input power is given by

The efficiency is

d) The input torque of the generator is

The induced countertorque of the generator is

 Solution
 
e) The voltage regulation of the generator is

Lagging PF:

Unity PF:

leading PF:
 Induction Machine Equivalent Circuit
 The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the exception that its secondary
windings are free to rotate.
 Assignment
1. Model the equivalent circuit of Induction machine with a detail description. Include
appropriate diagrams and equations. (10 pts)

2. What are the main steps followed during the design of an induction Motor. (10 pts)