Mechanical Technology Concepts: Applied Thermodynamics

Mechanical Technology
Concepts
Applied Thermodynamics
Properties of System
Any characteristic of a System is known as its PROPERTY.
e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m), etc.
also Viscosity (μ), Electric Resistance (R), Thermal Conductivity (k), etc.
Intensive : Independent on mass of system.

- e.g. Velocity (c), Elevation (h), etc.
Extensive : Dependent on mass of system.

- e.g. Pressure (P), Density (ρ), etc.
Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass.

- e.g. Sp. Vol (v=V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h=H/m), etc.
State & Equilibrium
Assume a System NOT undergoing any change.
Set of properties to completely describe the condition of the system is known as its STATE
m = 2 kg
m = 2 kg T1 = 25 ºC
T1 = 25 ºC V1 = 3 m3
V1 = 1 m3
STATE 1 STATE 2
State & Equilibrium
EQUILIBRIUM : State of Balance
Thermal Equilibrium :
- NO Temperature Gradient throughout the system.
Mechanical Equilibrium :
- NO Pressure Gradient throughout the system.
Phase Equilibrium :
- System having more than 1 phase.
- Mass of each phase is in equilibrium.
Chemical Equilibrium :
- Chemical composition is constant
- NO reaction occurs.
Path & Process
Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is known as
PROCESS.
Series of states through which system passes during the process is known as its PATH.
State 2
Property B
Path State 2 State 1

State 1
Property A
Path & Process
Process proceeds in such a manner that system
remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium

t=t1 t=0
conditions at all times.
Quasi-Static
It is known as QUASI-STATIC or
QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM Process.
t=t2t
t=0
t2 < t 1
Applied Thermodynamics Non-Quasi-Static
Path & Process
NOTE : Process Path is a

Quasi-Static CONTINUOUS line only if it is
Process having Quasi-Static Process.
Pressure
Path
Non-Quasi-Static Process is
denoted by a DASHED line.
State 1 State 2
Non-Quasi-Static
Volume
Process Path
Pressure
State 1 State 2
Volume
Path & Process
h=Const s=Const
Isenthalpic Isentropic
V=Const
Temperature (T)
Isochoric
Pressure (P)
T=Const
P=Const Isothermal
Isobaric
Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)
Cycle
State 2 CYCLE :
A system is said to have

undergone a cycle if it returns to its
Property B
ORIGINAL state at the end of the

process.
State 1 Hence, for a CYCLE, the

INITIAL and the FINAL states are
Property A identical.
Reversible / Irreversible Process
Reversible Process : Process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
Surroundings.
i.e. Both, System and Surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of
the Process.
This is only possible when net Heat and net Work Exchange
between the system and the surroundings is ZERO for the Process.
t=t1
t=0
Quasi-Static Compression and Expansion
Pendulum
Reversible / Irreversible Process
Most of the Processes in nature are IRREVERSIBLE.
i.e. Having taken place, they can not reverse themselves spontaneously and restore the
System to its original State.
e.g. Hot cup of coffee Cools down when exposed to

Surroundings.
But, Warm up by gaining heat from Surroundings.

i.e. w/o external Heat supply.
Temperature
TEMPERATURE :
- No EXACT Definition.
- Broad Definition : “Degree of Hotness / Cold”
- This definition is based on our physiological sensation.
- Hence, may be misleading.
- e.g. Metallic chair may feel cold than Wooden chair; even at SAME temperature.
- Properties of materials change with temperature.
- We can make use of this phenomenon to deduce EXACT level of temperature.
Temperature Scales
• Celsius Scale ( ºC ) – SI System
• Fahrenheit Scale ( ºF ) – English System
• Kelvin Scale ( K ) – SI System
• Rankine Scale ( R ) – English System
Celsius Scale and Fahrenheit Scale – Based on 2 easily reproducible fixed states,
viz. Freezing and Boiling points of water.
i.e. Ice Point and Steam Point
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Independent of properties of any substance.

- In conjunction with Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Kelvin Scale and Rankine Scale.
Temperature Scales
(C – 0) /100 = (F – 32) /180 = (K – 273) /100
Conversion Factors :
ºC K ºF
T ( K ) = T ( ºC ) + 273.15
0.0 273 32
100 100 180 T ( ºF ) = 1.8 T ( ºC ) + 32
100 373 212
PdV Work
Area A Let the Piston be moving from Thermodynamic
P2 V Equilibrium State 1 (P1, V1) to State 2 (P2, V2).

P 1 V1 2
Let the values at any intermediate Equilibrium
State is given by P and V.
State 1 State 2
For an Infinitesimal displacement, dL, the Infinitesimal Work done is;

P1
dW = F * dL = P*A*dL = PdV
Quasi-Static
Similarly, for Process 1 – 2; we can say that; Process
Pressure
V2 Path
P2
W12   PdV
V1
V1 Volume V
2
PdV Work
PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :
P=Const
Isobaric
State 1 State 2
V2
Pressure (P)
W1-2 W12   1PdV  P (V2  V1 )

V
Volume (V) V2
V1
PdV Work
State 1
P1
V=Const
V2
Pressure (P)
Isochoric W12   PdV

0
P2 State 2 V1
Volume (V)
PdV Work
V2
State 1
P1
PV = C W12   1PdV
Pressure
Quasi-Static V
PV
PV  PV 1 1  C  P
1 1
 V
State 2
P2
V2
dV V P
W12  P1V1 V1 V  P 1V 1ln
V1
2
 P 1 V 1ln
P2
1
V1 V2
Volume
PdV Work
1
P1 PVn = C
Pressure
n n =1
2
P2 =∞
n =3 n =2
Volume
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
STATEMENT :
If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the third body, then they are also in Thermal
Equilibrium with each other.
A B
C
25 ºC 25 ºC 25 ºC
This statement seems to be very simple.

However, this can not be directly concluded from the other Laws of Thermodynamics.
It serves as the basis of validity of TEMPERATURE measurement.
By replacing the Third Body with a Thermometer; the Zeroth Law can be stated as :
Two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium, if both have same TEMPERATURE, regarding
even if they are not in contact with each other.
A B
25 ºC
25 ºC 25 ºC
i.e. Temp (A) measured by Thermometer and is known.

(A) is in Thermal Equilibrium with (B).
Then, Temp (B) is also known, even not in contact with Thermometer.
- Formulated and labeled by R.H. Fowler in 1931.
- However, its significance is realised after half a century after formation of First and
Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
- Hence named as Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Also known as Law of Conservation of Energy
Important due to its ability to provide a sound basis to study between different forms of
Energy and their interactions.
STATEMENT :
m = 2 kg PE
= 10 kJ Energy can neither be created nor
KE = 0
destroyed during a process; but can be only
Δz converted from one form to another.

PE = 7 kJ
KE = 3 m g Δz = ½ m ( v12 - v2 )
2
kJ
First Law of Thermodynamics
This forms the basis for Heat Balance / Energy Balance.
Net change ( increase / decrease ) in the total Energy of the System during a Process
= Difference between Total Energy entering and Total Energy leaving the System during
that Process.
Total Energy _ Total Energy = Change in Total Energy

entering the System leaving the System of the System
( EIN ) ) ( ΔE )
( EOUT
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat
Hot cup of coffee gets cooled off when exposed to
surrounding.
Energy lost by coffee = Energy gained by Surroundings.
Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied.
HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.
i.e. Taking out Heat Energy from Surroundings ≠ Coffee
getting hot.
Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !
Heating of a room by Electric heater; by passing Electric
Current through the Resistor.

Heat
Electric Energy supplied to the heater =
I Energy transferred to the Surroundings ( room air ).
HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.
Transferring Heat to the wire ≠
Equivalent amount of Electric Energy generated in wire.
Paddle Wheel mechanism operated by falling mass.
Paddle wheel rotates as mass falls down and stirs the

fluid inside the container.
Decrease in Potential Energy of the mass =
Increase in Internal Energy of the fluid.
Heat HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.

Transferring Heat to the Paddle Wheel ≠
Raising the mass.
From these day – to – day life examples, it can be clearly seen that;
Satisfying the First Law of Thermodynamics does not ensure for a Process to occur
actually.
Processes proceed in certain direction; but may not in Reverse direction.
First Law of Thermodynamics has no restriction on the DIRECTION of a Process

to occur.
This inadequacy of the First Law of Thermodynamics; to predict whether the Process can
occur is solved by introduction of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
SIGNIFICANCE :
• Second Law of Thermodynamics is not just limited to identify the direction of the
Process.
• It also asserts that Energy has quantity as well as Quality.
• It helps to determine the Degree of Degradation of Energy during the Process.
• It is also used to determine the Theoretical Limits for the performance of the
commonly used engineering systems, such as Heat Engines and Refrigerators.
Thermal Energy Reservoir :
Hypothetical body with relatively very large Thermal Energy Capacity
( mass x Sp. Heat ) that can supply or absorb finite amount of Heat without
undergoing change in Temperature.
e.g. ocean, lake, atmosphere, two-phase system, industrial furnace, etc.

S
ource
Reservoir that supplies Energy in form of Heat is known as SOURCE.
ea
t
Reservoir that absorbs Energy in form of Heat is known as SINK.

Sink
Heat
Work No Work
Heat Heat
Water Water
From such examples, it can be concluded that,

• Work can be converted to Heat.
• BUT, Converting Heat to Work requires special devices.
These devices are known as Heat Engines.
Characteristics of Heat Engines :
• They receive the Heat from High-Temp Reservoir ( i.e. Source )
(e.g. Solar Energy, Oil Furnace, Nuclear Reactor, etc.).
3. They convert part of this Heat to Work
( Usually in form of rotating shaft ).
•
They reject the remaining Heat to Low-Temp Reservoir ( i.e. Sink )
(e.g. Atmosphere, River, etc.)
•
They operate on a CYCLE.
Heat Engines are generally Work – Producing devices,

e.g. Gas Turbines, I.C. Engines, Steam Power Plants, etc.
HEAT ENGINE :
High Temp
Source
Qin
Heat Engine Wnet
Qout
Low Temp
Sink
STEAM POWER PLANT :
SOURCE
(Furnace)
Can Qout be eliminated ?
Qin
Boiler
ANS : NO.
Win Wout Without a Heat Rejection

Pump Turbine Process, the Cycle can not be
completed.
Condenser
Qout
SINK
(Atm. Air)
SOURCE Net Work Output =

(Furnace) - Win
Qin Worknet,out = Wout
Boiler
Each component is an OPEN SYSTEM
Win Wout However, as a complete set of

Pump components, no mass flows in / out of
Turbine
the system
Hence, it can be treated as a

Condenser ∆U = 0
CLOSED
Qout SYSTEM
SINK Thus,
(Atm. Air)
- Qin
Worknet,out = Qout
SOURCE Part of Heat output that is

(Furnace) converted to net Work output, is a
Qin
measure of performance of the
Boiler
Heat Engine; and is known as the
THERMAL EFFICIENCY of the
Win Wout
Pump Heat Engine.
Turbine
Net Work Output
Thermal Efficiency =
Total Heat Input
Condenser
Qout
SINK
th  Wnet ,out  1  Qout
(Atm. Air) Qin Qin
QH = Magnitude of Heat Transfer
SOURCE
(Furnace) between cyclic device and
Qin Source at temperature TH
Boiler
QL = Magnitude of Heat Transfer
Win Wout between cyclic device and

Pump Turbine Sink at temperature TL
- QL
Worknet,out = QH
Condenser
Qout
SINK th  Wnet ,out  1  QL
QH QH
(Atm. Air)
Heat Engine must give away some heat to the Low Temperature Reservoir
( i.e. Sink ) to complete the Cycle.
Thus, a Heat Engine must exchange Heat with at least TWO Reservoirs for
continuous operation.
This forms the basis for the Kelvin – Planck expression of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
Kelvin – Planck Statement :
It is impossible for any device that operates on a Cycle to receive Heat
from a single Reservoir and produce net amount of Work.
Thermal Energy
Alternatively; Reservoir
QH = 100
No Heat Engine can have a thermal kW
efficiency of 100 per cent. Wnet =

Heat
100
Engine
kW
QL = 0
REFRIGERATOR / HEAT PUMP :
Surrounding Air
Heat is always transferred from High
QH
Temperature to Low Temperature region.
Condenser
The reverse Process can not Wnet, in

Expansion
occur on itself.
Valve
Compressor
Transfer of Heat from
Evaporator
Low Temperature region to High
QL
Temperature one requires special devices,
Refrigerated Space
known as REFRIGERATORS.
REFRIGERATOR / HEAT PUMP :
High Temp
Source
QH
Wnet, in
Refrigerator
QL
Low Temp
Sink
Efficiency of a Refrigerator is expressed in terms

Surrounding Air
QH of Coefficient of Performance (COP)R.
Condenser
Desired
COP R Re quired Input Wnet
Wnet, in Output QL ,in
Expansion 
Valve First Law of Thermodynamics gives;
Compressor
- QL
Evaporator Worknet,in = QH
QL QL 1
COPR  
Refrigerated Space QH  QL Q
  

H Q L
Thus, COPR can be > 1 1
For a Heat Pump, COP is expressed as (COP)HP.

Surrounding Air
QH
Condenser
COPHP  Desired Output  QH
Re quired Input Wnet
Wnet, in ,in
Expansion
Valve
QH 1
Compressor COPHP  
QH  Q L 1 
Evaporator
 QL QH 

QL 
Refrigerated Space Thus;
COPHP = COPR + 1
Clausius Statement :
It is impossible to construct a device that Warm
operates in a Cycle, and produces no effect Environment
other than the transfer of Heat from a Lower QH =

5 kJ
Temperature Body to a Higher Temperature Wnet = 0
body.
Refr
iger
ator
Alternatively; QL = 5 kJ
No Refrigerator can operate unless its
Refrigerated
compressor is supplied with external Space
Power source.
TH TH
QH
Wnet = Q H + QL QL
QH
=
Wnet = 0
Heat
Engine
Refrigerator
QL = 0 QL QL Refrigerator
TL
TL
This Proves that;

Violation of Kelvin – Planck Statement results in violation of Clausius Statement.

Mechanical Technology Concepts: Applied Thermodynamics

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Mechanical Technology

Any characteristic of a System is known as its PROPERTY.

Intensive : Independent on mass of system.

Extensive : Dependent on mass of system.

Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass.

Assume a System NOT undergoing any change.

Path State 2 State 1

Process proceeds in such a manner that system

remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium

NOTE : Process Path is a

Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

A system is said to have

ORIGINAL state at the end of the

State 1 Hence, for a CYCLE, the

Most of the Processes in nature are IRREVERSIBLE.

System to its original State.

e.g. Hot cup of coffee Cools down when exposed to

But, Warm up by gaining heat from Surroundings.

- Broad Definition : “Degree of Hotness / Cold”

- This definition is based on our physiological sensation.

- Hence, may be misleading.

- Properties of materials change with temperature.

- We can make use of this phenomenon to deduce EXACT level of temperature.

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Independent of properties of any substance.

100 100 180 T ( ºF ) = 1.8 T ( ºC ) + 32

100 373 212

P2 V Equilibrium State 1 (P1, V1) to State 2 (P2, V2).

For an Infinitesimal displacement, dL, the Infinitesimal Work done is;

W1-2 W12   1PdV  P (V2  V1 )

Isochoric W12   PdV

PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

This statement seems to be very simple.

i.e. Temp (A) measured by Thermometer and is known.

- Formulated and labeled by R.H. Fowler in 1931.

Second Laws of Thermodynamics.

- Hence named as Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

Also known as Law of Conservation of Energy

Δz converted from one form to another.

Total Energy _ Total Energy = Change in Total Energy

Energy lost by coffee = Energy gained by Surroundings.

Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied.

HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.

i.e. Taking out Heat Energy from Surroundings ≠ Coffee

Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !

Heating of a room by Electric heater; by passing Electric

Current through the Resistor.

I Energy transferred to the Surroundings ( room air ).

Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied.

HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.

Transferring Heat to the wire ≠

Equivalent amount of Electric Energy generated in wire.

Still, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied !

Paddle Wheel mechanism operated by falling mass.

Paddle wheel rotates as mass falls down and stirs the

Here, First Law of Thermodynamics is satisfied.

Heat HOWEVER, converse is NOT true.

Processes proceed in certain direction; but may not in Reverse direction.

First Law of Thermodynamics has no restriction on the DIRECTION of a Process

occur is solved by introduction of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

commonly used engineering systems, such as Heat Engines and Refrigerators.

Hypothetical body with relatively very large Thermal Energy Capacity