Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 12

Construction And
Design
 Contents
 Behaviour of welded structures under
different types of loading

 Design for static loading

 Design for dynamic loading

 Design of welded pressure equipment

 3.5.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures
Under Different Types Of Loading
 All composite and fabricated structures work
under different environmental and loading
conditions such as :
 Static or dynamic loading
 Concentrated or distributed loading
 Tension or compression or torsional loading
 Combination of above loading
 At normal temperature
 At sub-zero temperature
 At elevated temperature
 3.5.2. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

 Steels working under above mentioned conditions of

loading and temperatures behave differently due to
variation of the following properties :
 Tensile strength
 Ductility
 Impact strength or toughness
 Creep resistance
 Brittleness
 Variations in the above properties occur mainly due to
the changes in the grain structures and inter granular
grain cohessiveness
 3.5.3. Static And Dynamic Loading

 Under static loading condition the tensile

strength , compressive strength , shear
strength values are determinants of the
section of the material and that of the weld
 But when the load varies in value , is
repeated at relatively high frequency or
constitutes a relatively high frequency the
materials endurance limit must be
substituted for the tensile strength
 At a given high stress value the material has
a definite service or fatigue life expressed as
“ n “ cycles of operations.
 3.5.4. Stress- Strain Curve

TUNGSTEN

S
T STEEL
R
E
S CAST IRON
S RUBBER

STRAIN
 3.5.5. Stress Vs “ N “ Curve

S
T
R
E ENDURANCE
S
S

“ N “ CYCLES OF STRESS
 3.5.6. Elevated Temperature Strength

 At elevated temperatures secondary

stresses such as those due to thermal
gradients or due to non-uniform heating and
cooling can be relatively large and difficult
to assess. These stresses may affect
service performance of a structure with
regard to strength characteristics.
 Design stresses are usually limited by yield
and tensile strengths upto a moderate
temperature of about 450 deg. To 535 deg.
Centigrade. At higher temperatures the
design stresses are limited by creep and
creep rupture strength.
 3.5.7. Elevated Temperature Design

 In designing apparatus / structures at

elevated temperatures allowance must be
made for the thermal coefficient of
expansion of the component materials.
 The tensile modulus of elasticity at room
temperature decreases linearly upto 450
deg. Centigrade and then begins to drop at
an increasing rate.
 Creep ( continuous non-reversible plastic
deformation with time under load )
resistance is the most important property to
consider in designing a structure to operate
at elevated temperature.
 CREEP STRENGTH

Two standards of creep strengths are

commonly used :

 The stress to produce a minimum

creep rate of 0.00001 per cent per hour
( 1 per cent per 100,000 hours )

 The stress to produce a total creep

strain of 1 per cent per 100,000 hours.
 SCHEMATIC CREEP CURVE

A –ELASTIC
E EXTENSION
B- CREEP AT
C DECREASING RATE
EXTENSION PER CENT

B D C – CREEP AT
APPROXIMATELY
CONSTANT RATE
F D – CREEP AT
INCREASING RATE
E – ELASTIC
CONTRACTION
F – PERMANENT
A CHANGE OF LENGTH

ELAPSED TIME IN HOURS

 3.5.8. Low Temperature Strength

 The terms “ low temperature “ and “ cryogenic “

may be defined as involving temperatures to – 100
degree and –273 deg. Centigrade.
 Design of structures operating at low temperatures
are based on the properties of yield and tensile
strength, fatigue limit, ductility and toughness
especially notch toughness.
 Notch toughness is a property of steel reflected in
its resistance to brittle failure under conditions of
high stress concentration such as impact loading
in the presence of a notch.
 3.5.9. Influence Of Notches And Weld
Defects
 Structures and welds are designed on the basic
assumptions that the steels and the welds are
defect free resulting normal tensile / yield
strength, ductility, toughness and homogenous
structures.
 However defects such as notch in the steel
brings stress concentration resulting brittle
failure under impact load.
 Similarly weld defects such as undercut,
porosity, cracks, lack of fusion and penetration
will cause failure of the welded joint and the
structure at a load less than the designed value.
 3.5.10.Types Of Fractures -- I

 Failure of structural members at stresses

well below their yield strengths indicates other
considerations besides the conventional
tensile properties. Analysis of the failures
indicates that the fractures usually are
initiated at notches caused by :
 Design features – rigidity of members
 Fabrication procedures– weld arc, defects
 Flaws in the materials – flakes, seams
Fracture surfaces provide an indication
of the probable causes of failure
 3.5.11. Types Of Fractures -- II

 Normal observations of fractured surfaces of a

structural member may be of :
 Brittle fracture or low energy fracture surface tends
to show that there is little deformation . the surfaces
are flat and at right angles – having a shiny
crystalline appearance.
 Ductile or shear fracture occurs after plastic
deformation by a sliding action. There are signs of
yielding along edges of the fractured surfaces
normally at 45 deg. Angle with a dull fibrous
appearance.
 Lamellar tearing -- layers of plate seams open up at
fractured surfaces showing clean separation.
 3.5.12. TYPES OF CRYOGENIC STEELS

 THE MOST COMMON RANGES OF COMPOSITIONS

OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS IN SUCH STEELS ARE :
 CARBON-------------------0.06 TO 0.10 PERCENT
 MANGANESE--------------1.50 TO 9.00 PERCENT
 SILICON ---------------NORMALLY 0.60 PERCENT
 NICKEL -------------------4.50 TO 18.00 PERCENT
 CHROMIUM -------------17.00 TO 25.00 PERCENT

 CRYOGENIC STEELS CONTAINING 9.00 PERCENT

NICKEL ARE CAPABLE OF RETAINING TOUGHNESS
AT A VERY LOW TEMPERATURES.
 3.5.13. CREEP RESISTANCE
STEELS
 CHROMIUM – MOLYBDENUM STEELS SUCH AS 2.25
Cr.,1.00 Mo STEELS ARE USED EXCLUSSIVELY FOR A
VARIETY OF TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS UPTO
450 DEG. CENTIGRADE
 12.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED
UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 705 DEG. CENTIGRADE
 17.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 816 DEG
CENTIGRADE
 27.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS FROM 870 to 1095 DEG CENTIGRADE
WHERE MOST SEVERE OXIDATION IS
ENCOUNTERED.
 3.5.14. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF
CRYOGENIC STEELS
TENSILE YIELD LOWEST
STRENGTH STRENGTH SERVICE
AISI NO. (Mpa) TEMP DEG.
(Mpa)
CENT.

201 655 310 -195

304 L 483 172 -270

316 517 207 -270

 3.5.15. CORRELATION BETWEEN ROOM TEMP.
TENSILE STRENGTH AND 100000 HRS RUPTURE
STRENGTH FOR 2.25 Cr-1 Mo STEEL

TENSILE 100000 HR 427 RUPTURE STRENGTH

STRENGTH AT DEG. 482 DEG. H538 DEG.
27 DEG. CENT(Mpa) CENT(Mpa) CENT(Mpa)
(Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

 3.6.1. Typical Types Of Loads

TENSION LOAD

BENDING
IO
N LOAD
SS
RE
MP
CO

SHEAR

LOAD
 3.6.2. Types Of Load

STATIC IMPAC
T

VARIABLE
 3.6.3. Types Of Joints
WELD
SINGLE T
JOINT DOUBLE
CORNER WELD WELD T JOINT
JOINT

SQUARE BUTT JOINT

WELD DOUBLE VEE BUTT JOINT

SINGLE VEE BUTT JOINT

REINFORCEMEN
FLANGE JOINT T
 3.6.4. Joint Design
45 60
B
A ROOT
GAP D
C

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK GOUGING
3.6.5. Stress, Strain, Modulus Of Elasticity.

Stress is defined to be the load on a member divided

by the area of cross section and is expressed in
newton per mm sq.
Stress may be tensile or compressive or shear
Elongation or compression per unit length is termed
strain and is number.
The ratio of stress by strain is called modulus of
elasticity
The endurance limit is the maximum stress to which
the material can be subjected for an indefinite service
life.
 3.6.6. MEMBERS UNDER TENSION AND
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION

TENSION CROSS SECIONAL AREA

TENSILE FORCE
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA = = P/a
ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESS

UNIT TENSILE STRESS

UNIT ELONGATION OR STRAIN = a/E
= MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

NOTE : THE SLENDERNESS RATIO IS TAKEN TO BE UNITY

 3.6.7. SHEAR STRENGTH OF WELD

HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCE ON EACH WELD

r Vay N/m
h = In
WHERE :
V = TOTAL SHEAR ON SECTION AT A
GIVEN POSITION ( N )
2
a = AREA OF FLANGE HELD BY WELD ( m )
y = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE C.G. OF FLANGE AREA
AND N.A. OF THE WHOLE SECTION (m)
4
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE WHOLE SECTION ( m )
n = NUMBER OF WELDS JOINING EACH FLANGE TO WEB
 3.6.8. WORKED EXAMPLE ON 3.6.7.

GIVEN :
Width of the flange= 250 mm. Thickness of the flange = 70 mm
Thickness of the web = 15 mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn 3 6
Then : r = (V.a.Y)/I.n ( 860/10) x (70 x 250)/10 x 1270/2000
h = 3
3
{ ( 250/12000) x (1.340 ) – 2.35 x 1.2 } x 2/12

= 0.2934712 MN/m
If the size of the fillet is w, and allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m 2
Then, 0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712.
or w = 4.32 mm

THIS SHOULD BE THE MINIMUM LEG SIZE OF THE CONTINUOUS

FILLET WELD
 3.7.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures
Under Dynamic Loading
 When the load on a member is constantly varying
in value or is repeated at relatively high
frequency or constitutes a complete reversal of
stresses with each operating cycle the material’s
endurance limit must be substituted for the
ultimate strength where called for by the design
formula
 Under high load values the variable or fatigue
mode of loading reduces the material’s effective
ultimate strength as the number of cycles
increases
 At a given high stress value the material has a
definite service or fatigue life expressed as n
cycles of operations
 3.7.2. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD
A TYPICAL S a
Av+
FATIGUE T
LOAD a
PATTERN
R Av-
CURVE E a a MAX
MIN
S
S
TIM
THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO REPRESENTE THE FATIGUE
LOAD :
1. AS A MEAN OR AVERAGE STRESS WITH A SUPERIMPOSED
VARIABLE STRESS
2. AS A STRESS VARYING FROM A MAXIMUM VALUE TO A
MINIMUM VALUE . HERE THE CYCLE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY THE RATIO
K = a Min / a Max
 3.7.3. VARIABLE STRESS AND MEAN
STRESS RELATIONSHIP
b
d
f

c e a
a = ULTIMATE STRENGTH UNDER STEADY LOAD (YIELD STRENGTH)
b = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR A COMPLETE REVERSAL OF STRESS
f = VARIABLE STRESS SUPERIMPOSED ON STEADY STRESS
e = MEAN STRESS ( AVERAGE STRESS )
A LINE CONNECTING POINTS b AND a WILL INDICATE THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIABLE STRESS AND THE MEAN
STRESS FOR ANY TYPE OF FATIGUE CYCLE FOR A GIVEN FATIGUE
LIFE N .
 RELATIVE FATIGUE STRENGTH %

70
80
85
90

75
95
100

1
ALLOWABLE FATIGUE STRESS X 100
KNOWN FATIGUE STRENGTH

4 2
3
N / N
a b
6
3.7.4. Fatigue Strength

7
 3.7.5. FATIGUE STRENGTH AS
RELATED TO THE NUMBER OF
CYCLES
IF , a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES
A A
a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES
B B
c = 0.13 FOR BUTT WELDS AND
= 0.18 FOR PLATES IN AXIAL LOADING, TENSION AND
COMPRESSION

THEN , c
a = a x(N /N )
A B B A
 3.7.6. Improving Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength of welded structures can be

improved by :
1. Using butt joints rather than lap joints
2. Avoiding intermittent fillet welds
3. Minimizing the size of the fillet welds
4. Peening the weld immediately after
welding
5. Post weld heat treatment to remove built
in stresses
6. Tumbling small welded components
7. Giving preference to structures with
multiple load paths.
 3.8.1. Design Of Dynamically Loaded
Structures: Applications

Most common and widely used welded

constructions working under moderate to
heavy dynamic loading are
1. Bridge structurals
2. Automobiles
3. Railway wagons and coaches
4. Sea going vessels
5. Offshore drilling platforms
6. Stationary and mobile cranes
7. Tall chimneys
8. Towers
 3.8.2. Fatigue Strength In Cyclic Loads
FATIGUE DESIGN STRESS N / mm
KIND OF
6 5 5
WELD AND 2 x 16 6x 10 10 BUT NOT
TO
STRESS CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES EXCEED

BUTT WELD 112/ 120 / 127/ a

TENSION 1 – 0.8r 1 – 0.7r 1- 0.5r t
BUTT WELD 126/ 127 / 127 / a
COMPRESSION 1-r 1 – 0.8 r 1 – 0.5r c

FILLET WELD 36 w / 50 w / 62 w / 62 w
ALL 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r
 3.8.3. STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT

THE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT AT ALTERNATING LOAD

MAY APPROXIMATELY BE OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE
STRESS VALUES GIVEN IN SLIDE NO. 3.8.2. BY :
1 FOR BUTT WELDED JOINTS
1 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)}

AND BY :
1 FOR CORNER AND SLOT
1.3 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)} WELDED JOINTS

HERE P(min) AND P(max) APPEAR IN THE FORMULA EACH

WITH ITS SIGN. HENCE, P(min)/ P(max) < 0 AND THEREFORE THE
FACTOR BECOMES LESS THAN 1 .
 3.8.4. WORKED EXAMPLE ON FATIGUE
LOADING
100 LOAD 45 kN
xxxxxxxxx 100

PROBLEM

100
A PLATE IS ATTACHED TO
THE FRAME OF A MACHINE AS xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
SHOWN IN THE FIGURE 150 SOLUTION
SHOWN WITH A VERTICAL CONSULTING THE TABLE GIVEN IN
LOAD OF 45 Kn. TO FIND OUT 3.8.2.:
THE SIZE OF THE FILLET IF ALLOWABLE LOAD
THE LIFE OF THE 5 = (50 w)/( 1 – 0.5r) N /mm
COMPONENT IS 6 x 10 CYCLES = (50 w)/{1 – 0,5(-0.3)} N/mm
AT = 43.5 w N/mm
P(min)/P(MAX) = -0.30 = 795 N/mm (FOR STATIC LOADING)
HENCE w = 18.3 mm.
RESULTANT FORCE= 795 N/mm FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES THE
FILLET SIZE TO BE TAKEN AS 20mm
 3.9.1. Design Of Welded Pressure Equipment

 Welded pressure equipment are close containers

carrying or containing steam, pressurised fluids or
gases exerting uniform pressure in all directions.
 Such containers must be tight and have sufficient
strength to withstand internal pressure to which it is
subjected. In arc welded construction the joints are
made as tight and strong as the plates joined.
 Tanks, boilers, pipe lines, hydraulic cylinders, steam
chests are some of the examples of pressure vessels in
use.
 Containers are required to work at normal, elevated or
even at sub-zero temperatures
 3.9.2. Unfired Pressure Vessels

 Any pressure container of any importance

undoubtedly must conform to the minimum
requirements of the asme section 8 “unfired
pressure vessels”. IN GENERAL THIS COVERS
CONTAINERS FOR PRESSURES EXCEEDING
15 psi UPTO A MAXIMUM OF 3000 psi AND
HAVING A DIAMETER EXCEEDING 150 mm

 In the next slides formulas for calculating the

minimum required wall thickness of cylindrical
shells and spherical shells are given.
 3.9.4. WALL THICKNESS OF
CYLINDRICAL SHELL
THIN SHELL : WHEN t < r /2
s i
AND p < 0.385 a E
a
pr i
ri
THEN : t = a E a- O.6 p ro
s

THICK SHELL : WHEN ts > ri /2

AND p > 0.385 a E ts
a
1/2
THEN : t = r {Z - 1}
s i

WHERE : Z = (a E + p) / ( a E – p)
a a
 3.9.3. FORMULAS FOR SHELL THICKNESS
ts = THICKNESS OF THE SHELL IN INCH
rc = MEAN RADIUS OF CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE SHELL IN INCH
rm = MEAN RADIUS OF THE MERIDIAN OF THE SHELL IN INCH
p = INTERNAL PRESSURE IN psi
a = ALLOWABLE STRESS ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR USC 23 )
Ea = JOINT EFFICIENCY ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR UW – 12 )
a mp
= TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MERIDIAN
a cp= TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF A TANGENT TO A
CIRCUMFERENCE
a rp= TENSILE STRESS IN THE RADIAL DIRECTION