02 Atoms Molecules N Ions

Lecture Presentation
Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, CT
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atomic Theory of Matter
The theory that atoms

are the fundamental
building blocks of
matter reemerged in the
early nineteenth
century, championed by
John Dalton.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Dalton’s Postulates
1) Each element is
composed of
extremely small
particles called
atoms.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2) All atoms of a given

element are identical
to one another in
mass and other
properties, but the
atoms of one element
are different from the
atoms of all other
elements.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
3) Atoms of an element
are not changed into
atoms of a different
element by chemical
reactions; atoms are
neither created nor
destroyed in chemical
reactions.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Law of Conservation of Mass
 The total mass of substances present at the

end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
 This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based.
 Lavoisier
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
4) Atoms of more than
one element combine
to form compounds;
a given compound
always has the same
relative number and
kind of atoms.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
My fourt posulate is an extension of a law formulated by the
French chemist, Joseph Proust (1754-1826), in 1799. Proust’s
Law of Definite Proportions states:
Different samples of the same compound always contain its con-

stituent elements in the same proportion by mass.
If we analyzed any number of samples of sodium chloride, NaCl,

collected from different sources, we would find in each and every
sample the same ratio BY MASS of sodium (Na) to chlorine (Cl).
Thus, if the ratio of the MASSES of different elements in a compound

is fixed, the ratio of the ATOMS of these elements in the compound Atoms,
Molecules,
must also be constant. and Ions
Law of Multiple Proportions
 If two elements, A and B, form more
than one compound, the masses of B
that combine with a given mass of A are
in the ratio of small whole numbers.
 Dalton predicted this law and observed
it while developing his atomic theory.
 When two or more compounds exist
from the same elements, they can
not have the same relative number Atoms,
of atoms. Molecules,
and Ions
Discovery of Subatomic Particles
• In Dalton’s view, the atom was the
smallest particle possible. Many
discoveries led to the fact that the atom
itself was made up of smaller particles.
 Electrons and cathode rays
 Radioactivity
 Nucleus, protons, and neutrons
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Dalton thought of atoms as being
indivisible and, thus, extremely small.
Rutherford WHAT ARE THEY?
SAY IT ISN’T SO!!!
A series of investigations that began

in the 1850s and extended into the
20th century demonstrated clearly
Becquerel that atoms themselves had internal
structure; i.e., atoms are made up of
even smaller particles!!. Atoms,
Thomson Molecules,
Millikan and Ions
The Electron (Cathode Rays)
• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
How do we deduce from the figure that cathode
rays travel from cathode to anode?
a. The cathode and anode are labeled in figure (a).

b. A green gas exists in the vacuum tube.
c. Cathode rays consist of charge particles.
d. the manner in which the magnet diverts the path in
figure (b)

How do we deduce from the figure that cathode
rays travel from cathode to anode?
a. The cathode and anode are labeled in figure (a).

b. A green gas exists in the vacuum tube.
c. Cathode rays consist of charge particles.
d. the manner in which the magnet diverts the path in
figure (b)

- Fluorescent
Anode
screen
In the absence of an
Cathode electric field,
electrons emitted by
the cathode are
drawn to the anode,
pass through the
hole in the anode
A center, and strike the
fluorescent screen at
point A.
B In the presence of an
external electric field,
electrons emitted by the
cathode eventually
strike the fluorescent
High + screen at point B. This
Voltage
is due to the negatively
charged electrons being
deflected by the
Atoms,
negative part ofMolecules,
the
Cathode ray tube electric field andand Ions
See©Textbook page
2015 Pearson 30 Inc.
Education, attracted toward the
The Electron
Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of

the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram
(C/g). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
If no magnetic field were applied, would you
expect the electron beam to be deflected upward
or downward by the electric field?
a. Downward because a negative particle is repelled by

a negative plate and attracted to a positive plate.
b. Upward because a negative particle is attracted to a
negative plate and repelled by a positive plate.
c. Downward because a negative particle is attracted to a
d. Upward because a negative particle is repelled by a
negative plate and attracted to a positive plate.

If no magnetic field were applied, would you
expect the electron beam to be deflected upward
or downward by the electric field?
a. Downward because a negative particle is repelled by

a negative plate and attracted to a positive plate.
b. Upward because a negative particle is attracted to a
c. Downward because a negative particle is attracted to a
d. Upward because a negative particle is repelled by a
negative plate and attracted to a positive plate.

Using a cathode ray tube and his extensive knowledge
of electromagnetic theory, Thomson determined the
ratio of electric charge to mass for an electron.
-1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram
9.10 x 10-28 g
(mass of an
Incredibly individual electron
The coulomb (C) is a small charge
unit of electric charge. and mass!!
-1.6022 x 10-19 C
(charge on an individual electron)
R. A. Millikan successfully measured the charge on,
and mass of, an individual electron by studying the
motion of single tiny oil drops that acquired charge
from
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. ions in the air.
QUICK TIME VIDEO

Robert Millikan’s (in)famous “Oil Drop” Experiment
charge -1.6022 x 10-19 C
mass of electron = ----------------- = ----------------------- = 9.10 x 10 -28 g
charge/mass -1.76 x 108 C/g
charged oil droplets

plate
+ +
small atomize
oil droplets hole r
under
observatio
n
-
charged
plate viewing
microscop
(Based on Pearson
© 2015 Fig. 2.5, p. 39,Inc.
Education, Chang 7th ed.) e
Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
(Electrons)
 Once the charge/mass
ratio of the electron was
known, determination of
either the charge or the
mass of an electron
would yield the other.
 Robert Millikan
determined the charge
on the electron in 1909.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Would the masses of the oil drops be changed
significantly by any electrons that accumulate
on them?
a. Yes, the electrons add significant mass to the oil drop.

b. No, the electrons add only a small mass to the oil drop.
c. Yes, the electrons cause the oil drops to stick together.

Would the masses of the oil drops be changed
significantly by any electrons that accumulate
on them?
a. Yes, the electrons add significant mass to the oil drop.

b. No, the electrons add only a small mass to the oil drop.
c. Yes, the electrons cause the oil drops to stick together.

Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of

high-energy radiation by an atom.
• It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
• Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
• Its discovery showed that the atom had more
subatomic particles and energy associated
with it.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
–  particles (positively charged)
–  particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
–  rays (uncharged)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
(1) Which of the three kinds of radiation shown
consists of electrons?
(1)
a. β
b. γ
c. α
d. (A) and (C)

(1) Which of the three kinds of radiation shown
consists of electrons?
(1)
a. β
b. γ
c. α
d. (A) and (C)

(2) Why are these rays deflected to a greater
extent than the others?
(2)
a. Beta particles are negatively charged.

b. Alpha particles are positively charged.
c. Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
d. Beta particles are less massive than alpha particles.

(2) Why are these rays deflected to a greater
extent than the others?
(2)
a. Beta particles are negatively charged.

b. Alpha particles are positively charged.
c. Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
d. Beta particles are less massive than alpha particles.

The Atom, circa 1900
• The prevailing theory

was that of the “plum
pudding” model, put
forward by Thomson.
• It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
embedded in it.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Discovery of the Nucleus
Ernest
Rutherford shot
 particles at a
thin sheet of
gold foil and
observed the
pattern of
scatter of the
particles.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Structure of the Atom: The Proton & Nucleus
Rutherford’s experiment for measuring scattering of a

particles by a thin metal foil:
a Rutherford used a particles to probe atomic structure.
Thin gold and other metal foils served as targets for a

a particles. See the illustration below (from S. Zumdahl slides).
E. Rutherford Most of the a particles penetrated the metal foils with little or
(1871-1937) a no deflection. However, an a particle would be deflected at a
large angle or back toward the source!
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
QUICK TIME
VIDEO
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
a particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)
1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron Atoms,
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e (1.67 x 10 g)
- -24 Molecules,
and Ions
Structure of the Atom: The Proton & Nucleus
Rutherford formulated his model of the atom, based on

the results of his a-scattering experiments:
Mostly empty space, which would explain why most a
a particles passed through the foil undetected.
Atom’s positive charges concentrated in the nucleus, a dense

E. Rutherford
a central core within the atom. This would explain why those a
(1871-1937) particles that came near or directly at the nucleus experienced
large deflections or reversed directions (repulsion of positive
charge by positive charge).
We now know these positively charged particles in the

nucleus as protons:
Mass of proton = 1.67262 x 10-24 g -- about 1840x the mass of
a an electron.
Typical atomic radius is about 100 pm (pm = picometers).

a Atoms,
Radius of atomic nucleus ONLY about 5 x 10-3 pm !!! IT’S
Molecules,
LIKE PLACING A MARBLE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE and Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. HOUSTON ASTRODOME!!!
What is the charge on the particles that form
the beam?
a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

b. +2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
c. +1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
d. –2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.

What is the charge on the particles that form
the beam?
a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

b. +2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
c. +1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
d. –2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.

The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles

were deflected at
large angles,
Thomson’s model
could not be correct.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a
very small, dense
nucleus with the
electrons around the
outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume is
empty space.
• Atoms are very small;
1 – 5 Å or 100 – 500 pm.
• Other subatomic particles
(protons and neutrons)
were discovered. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
What is the approximate diameter of the nucleus
in units of pm?
a. 100 pm
b. 1 pm
c. 10–2 pm
d. 10–4 pm

What is the approximate diameter of the nucleus
in units of pm?
a. 100 pm
b. 1 pm
c. 10–2 pm
d. 10–4 pm

Structure of the Atom: The Neutron
Rutherford’s model of the atom left one question unanswered:
We electrons
have very
little mass
compared to
protons!
Why Thus, our
is the ratio of contribution
to atomic
the mass of the He atom to that of the H atom
actually mass is
negligible!!
4:1
instead of the 2:1 ratio
predicted by Rutherford’s
model?
- Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
A number of my colleagues and I postulated that anothe

type of subatomic particle exists in the atomic nucleus
Lord Ernest
Rutherford
My coworkers and I carried out the bombardment of

Be (beryllium) metal with a particles. We observed tha
the Be gave off high-energy radiation that we found wa
unaffected by electric fields or magnets.
Sir James Chadwick

(1891-1974)
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
I gave the name neutrons to the subatomic particles th

comprised the high-energy radiation given off by the B
metal.
A neutron is an electrically neutral particle with a mass

of 1.67493 x 10-24 g -- just slightly larger than the mass of th
positive proton (1.67262 x 10-24 g).
e- proton p
(p) e- p
e-
H neutron Atoms,
relative mass = 1
(n) n He
relative
Molecules,
and=Ions
mass 4
Subatomic Particles
• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge;
neutrons are neutral.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass (relative mass 1). The mass of an electron
is so small we ignore it (relative mass 0).
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus;
electrons travel around the nucleus.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Mass
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• The heaviest known atoms have a
mass of approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is
used, where an atomic mass unit
(amu) is the base unit.
 1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Weight Measurement
• Atomic and molecular weight can be measured
with great accuracy using a mass
spectrometer.
• Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon
atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Symbols of Elements
 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol.

This is the symbol for carbon.
 All atoms of the same element have the same number of
protons, which is called the atomic number, Z. It is written
as a subscript BEFORE the symbol.
 The mass number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a
superscript BEFORE the symbol.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons,
but the same number of protons.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
ATOMIC
8 NUMBER (Z)
O The number of
protons
in the nucleus of an atom
of each element
16 In a neutral atom:
# of protons = # of electrons
The element considered above is oxygen. How many protons

does a neutral oxygen atom contain? How many electrons?Atoms,
Molecules,
Where are the protons located in the oxygen atom? and Ions
ATOMIC MASS
8 Mass Number
O
(A)
The total number of

protons + neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
of each element
16 In a neutral atom:
mass number =
Where are neutrons located? # of protons + # of neutrons
What is their charge?
A = Z + # neutronsAtoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms that have the
same atomic number
Isotopes but different mass
numbers
mass number = element

A symbol
A
atomic number X The accepted format for writing

=Z Z an isotope
1 2 3
3 Isotopes
of H H H
1 1 1
Hydrogen
hydrogen deuterium tritium Atoms,
Molecules,
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton and Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
Or it can be written as X—A ex) Sr-90

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Try these isotopes! Determine: (a) no. of protons; (b) no. of neutrons;
(c) no. of electrons.
235 238
U U
92 92
58 231
Fe Th
26 90
65 130
Cu I Atoms,
29 53 Molecules,
and Ions
Do You Understand Isotopes?
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 146 C?
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 116 C?
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Hwk: page 73-79:
12, 17, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 31, 92
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
LESSON 2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Weight
• Because in the real world we use large amounts
of atoms and molecules, we use average masses
in calculations.
• An average mass is found using all isotopes of an
element weighted by their relative abundances.
This is the element’s atomic weight.
• That is, Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass)
× (fractional natural abundance)]. Note: the
sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
An average carbon atom consists chiefly of 2 isotopes:
12
C C
13
6
6 1.1% abundant;
13.00335 amu
Atoms,
Molecules,
98.9% abundant; 12.00 amu and Ions
98.9% abundant; 12.00 amu
12
C C
13
6
6 1.1% abundant;
13.00335 amu
Avg. atomic mass of C = (0.9890)(12.00 amu) + (0.0110)(13.00335 amu)

12.011 amu Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
% isotope 1
Avg. Atomic Mass = ( 100)(mass in amu) +···
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Natural lithium is:
7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)
Average atomic mass of lithium:
7.42 x 6.015 + 92.58 x 7.016

= 6.941 amu
100
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic masses of elements are indeed average masses:
1 H atom = 1.008 amu
1 O atom = 15.9994 amu
1 Fe atom = 55.85 amu
…based on elements’ isotopes and their abundances Atoms,

Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• The periodic
table is a
systematic
organization of the
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in order
of atomic number.
• Unlike the way we write isotopes, the atomic
number is at the TOP of a box in the periodic table.
• The atomic weight of an element appears at the
BOTTOM of the box. (They are not shown on this
Atoms,
version of the Periodic Table.) Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• The rows on the

periodic table are
called periods.
• Columns are
called groups.
• Elements in the
same group have
similar chemical
properties.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodicity
When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
If F is a reactive nonmetal, which other element or
elements shown here do you expect to also be a
reactive nonmetal?
a. He and Ar
b. Be and Ca
c. H and Cl
d. Ne and Ar

If F is a reactive nonmetal, which other element or
elements shown here do you expect to also be a
reactive nonmetal?
a. He and Ar
b. Be and Ca
c. H and Cl
d. Ne and Ar

Intro. to the Periodic Table Movie Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
PERIODIC TABLE of the ELEMENTS
Based on repeating
Developed in 1869 by Elements 104 through
trends in Atoms,
Dmitri Mendeleev, 109 have been named
Molecules,
chemical & physical
a Russian chemist…. (Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs,
andMt).
Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. properties of elements...
Elements 104 through 109 now have names...
Bohrium
Dubnium (named for Niels
(named for the Bohr)
Dubna nuclear
research facility in
Russia Meitnerium
(named for Lise
104 105 106 107 108 109 Meitner)
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
261.11 262.114 263.118 262.12 (265) (266)
Rutherfordium
(named for Lord
Rutherford) Hassium
(named for
Seaborgium Hassen state in
(named for Glenn Atoms,
Germany) Molecules,
T. Seaborg)
and Ions
GROUPS: 1. Vertical arrangements of elements
(a.k.a. FAMILIES) Atoms,
OF ELEMENTS 2. Possess similar chemical & physical propertie
Molecules,
and Ions
GROUP 1 ELEMENTS Hydroge
(IA) n
(HI-dro-
Lithium jen)
(LITH-ee-
um) Sodium
(SO-dee-
Potassium um)
(po-TASS-ee-
um) Rubidium
Cesium (roo-BID-ee-
(SEE-zee-um) um)
Francium ALKALI Atoms,

(AL-kuh-lie)Molecules,
(FRAN-see-
metals and Ions
um)
GROUP 2 ELEMENTS Beryllium
(IIA) (bur-RILL-ee-
um)
Magnesium
(mag-NEE-zee-
um) Calcium
(CAL-see-um)
Strontium
(STRON-tee-
Barium um)
(BEAR-ee- ALKALINE
um) EARTH
Radium (AL-kuh-lin URTH)
Atoms,
(RAY-dee-um) Molecules,
metals and Ions
GROUP 16 ELEMENTS Oxygen
(VIA)
(OX-ee-
jen)
Sulfur
(SULL-fur)
Selenium
(sel-LEAN-ee-
um) Tellurium
(tell-LURE-ee-
um)
Polonium CHALCOGENS
Atoms,
(po-LOW-nee- Molecules,
(CHALL-ko-jens)
and Ions
um)
GROUP 17 ELEMENTS Fluorine
(VIIA) (FLOOR-
een)
Chlorine
(KLOR-een)
Bromine
(BRO-meen)
Iodine
(EYE-oh-deen)
Astatine HALOGENS
Atoms,
(ASS-tuh-teen) (HAL-low-jens)
Molecules,
and Ions
GROUP 18 ELEMENTS Helium
(VIIIA) (HEE-lee-
um)
Neon
(NEE-on)
Argon
(ARE-gone)
Krypton
(KRIP-tawn)
Xenon
(ZEE-non)
NOBLE
Radon (or INERT)Atoms,
(RAY-dawn) GASES and Ions
Molecules,

PERIODS: 1. Horizontal arrangements of elements
(or ROWS) Atoms,
OF ELEMENTS 2. Possess common characteristics Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Main Group Elements groups 1, 2, 13  18
Representative Elements
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Transition elements = groups 3  12
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The Lanthanide and Actinide series are also known as the
Rare Earth Elements or Inner transition Elements
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
In chemistry,
all elements,
natural & man-made,
are grouped into
one of three
broad classifications:
Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity; malleable; ducti
Nonmetals: Poor conductors of heat and electricity; ha
Metalloids or Semi-Metals: Properties intermediate betw

metals and nonmetals
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• Metals are on
the left side of
the periodic
table.
• Some properties
of metals
include
 shiny luster.
 conducting heat
and electricity.
 solidity (except
mercury). Molecules,
Atoms,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• Nonmetals are
on the right side
of the periodic
table (with the
exception of H).
• They can be
solid (like
carbon), liquid
(like bromine), or
gas (like neon)
at room
temperature.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• Elements on the
steplike line are
metalloids
(except Al, Po,
and At).
• Their properties
are sometimes
like metals and
sometimes like
nonmetals.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Hwk: page 73-79:
35, 41, 43, 95, 96, 100
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
LESSON 3
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
Those who do chemistry for a living use
CHEMICAL FORMULAS
to express composition of molecules and salts (i.e., ionic compounds)

in terms of chemical symbols that represent the elements.
Composition: Composition:
H2O
Which elements are Combining ratios of
present--hydrogen the elements involved
(H) & oxygen (O) --
2 hydrogens : 1
oxygen
(water) 2H:1O
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
• The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of
the compound.
• Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and
almost always contain only
nonmetals.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Diatomic Molecules
• These seven elements occur naturally
as molecules containing two atoms:
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen
– Oxygen
– Fluorine
– Chlorine
– Bromine
– Iodine
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-

number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number
of atoms of each element in a compound.
• If we know the molecular formula of a
compound, we can determine its empirical
formula. The converse is not true!
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
CHEMICAL FORMULAS
2
types
MOLECULAR EMPIRICAL
C6H12O6 glucose CH2O
Exact no. of atoms Elements present
of each element in simplest
in smallest unit whole-numberAtoms,
ratio
Molecules,
of substance of their atoms
and Ions
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance
An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance
molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.6
The simplest chemical formulas
EMPIRICAL Tell us which elements are present and

formulas simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms
NOT NECESSARILY the actual number
of atoms in a given molecule
Subscript “1” is understood & not written

when there’s only ONE atom of an element
present.
C2H4O2
CH2O
molecular
C3H6O3
formulas
empirical
Atoms,
formula C6H12O6 Molecules,
and Ions
MOLECULAR Exact number of atoms of each element
in the smallest unit of a substance
formulas
H2 hydrogen
O2 oxygen 2 or more
distinct
Allotropes forms of
an
O3 ozone element
H2O water
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Allotropes
Carbon
Diamond Graphite Fullerenes
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
H2O water
NH3 ammonia For these molecules,

and many more, the
empirical AND
molecular formulas
CO2 carbon dioxide are the same.
CH4 methane
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Types of Formulas
• Structural formulas show
the order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT
depict the three-dimensional
shape of molecules.
• Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
order of the atoms in a
compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
OR
“How Do We Visualize Something as Ridiculously Small as a Molecule?”
CH4 H
Structural
Molecular H C H formula
formula
H
H
USE
MOLECULAR
MODELS!!!
C
H H
Space-filling
model
Atoms,
Ball-and-stick
H model
Molecules,
and Ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.6
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Which model, the ball-and-stick or the space-
filling, more effectively shows the angles between
bonds around a central atom?
a. Ball-and-stick
b. Space-filling

Which model, the ball-and-stick or the space-
filling, more effectively shows the angles between
bonds around a central atom?
a. Ball-and-stick
b. Space-filling

Ions
• When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains

electrons, it becomes an ion.
• Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost.
Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
• Anions are formed when at least one electron is gained.
Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Ions
• An atom or group of atoms having a net positive or
negative charge.
Two types of ions...
CATIONS ANIONS
Ions with a net positive Ions with a net negative
charge. charge.
Formed by LOSS of one or Formed by GAIN of one or
more electrons from a more electrons by a
neutral atom. neutral atom.
Monatomic ions: have only 1 atom

Atoms,
Polyatomic ions: more than 1 atom Molecules,
and Ions
A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.5
Ions
-1e-
Na Na+ CATION
Sodium ion
+1e-
Cl Cl- ANION
Chloride ion
IONIC
COMPOUND
Na +
+ Cl- Na + Cl- Formed from
cations and
Atoms,
anionsMolecules,
and Ions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Sodium chloride
(1) The most common ions for silver, zinc, and
scandium are Ag+, Zn2+, and Sc3+. Locate the boxes
in which you would place these ions in this table.
(1)
Ag+ Zn2+ Sc3+

a. 2B 3B 4B
b. 1B 2B 3B
c. 1B 3B 2B
d. 4B 3B 2B

(1) The most common ions for silver, zinc, and
scandium are Ag+, Zn2+, and Sc3+. Locate the boxes
in which you would place these ions in this table.
(1)
Ag+ Zn2+ Sc3+

a. 2B 3B 4B
b. 1B 2B 3B
c. 1B 3B 2B
d. 4B 3B 2B

(2) Which of these ions have the same number of
electrons as a noble gas element?
(2)
a. Ag+
b. Zn2+
c. Sc3+
d. (B) and (C)

(2) Which of these ions have the same number of
electrons as a noble gas element?
(2)
a. Ag+
b. Zn2+
c. Sc3+
d. (B) and (C)

Common Cations
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Anions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Examples of Ions **
Monatomic Cations
Li+ lithium ion

Na+ sodium ion Monatomic Anions Polyatomic Ions
Mg2+ magnesium ion
Ba2+ barium ion F- fluoride ion NH4+ ammonium ion
Cr3+ chromium (III) ion* Cl- chloride ion PO43- phosphate ion
Cr6+ chromium (VI) ion* Br- bromide ion SO42- sulfate ion
Fe2+ iron (II) ion* I- iodide ion
CO32- carbonate ion
Fe3+ iron (III) ion* O2- oxide ion
S2- sulfide ion NO3- nitrate ion
Al3+ aluminum ion
Pb2+ lead (II) ion* N3- nitride ion C2H3O2- acetate ion
Pb4+ lead (IV) ion* P3- phosphide ion OH- hydroxide ion
C4- carbide ion CN- cyanide ion
* For cations with more than
one charge possible, a Roman
numeral is used to denote the
charge on the cation.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
** Refer alsoEducation,
© 2015 Pearson to FigureInc. 2.11, p. 49, Chang 7th ed.)
MONOATOMIC IONS
Hydride
H-
Hydrogen CATIONS ANIONS
H+
Lithium Beryllium Carbide Nitride Oxide Fluoride

Li+ Be2+ C4- N3- O2- F-
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide Sulfide Chloride

Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl-
Potassium Calcium Selenide Bromide

K+ Ca2+ Se2- Br-
Rubidium Strontium Telluride Iodide

Rb+ Sr2+ Te2- I-
Hydrogen can be
both a cation and
an anion.
Cesium Barium Atoms,
Cs+ Ba2+ Molecules,
and Ions
METALS THAT FORM MORE
THAN ONE CATION*
Metal IonStock Name Metal IonStock Name

Cr2+ chromium (II) Mn2+ manganese (II)
Cr3+ chromium (III) Mn3+ manganese (III)
Cr6+ chromium (VI) Mn4+ manganese (IV)
V3+ vanadium (III) Mn6+ manganese (VI)
V5+ vanadium (V) Mn7+ manganese (VII)
Fe2+ iron (II) Cu+ copper (I)
Fe3+ iron (III) Cu2+ copper (II)
Pb2+ lead (II) Sn2+ tin (II)
Pb4+ lead (IV) Sn4+ tin (IV)
Au+ gold (I) Co2+ cobalt (II)
Atoms,
Au 3+
gold (III) Co 3+
cobalt (III) Molecules,
and Ions
Polyatomic Ions--A Partial List
NH4+ ammonium CO32- carbonate

NO3- nitrate HCO3- bicarbonate
NO2- nitrite
SO42- sulfate
SO32- sulfite ClO4- perchlorate
HSO4- bisulfate ClO3- chlorate
PO43- phosphate ClO2- chlorite
PO33- phosphite ClO- hypochlorite
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
H2PO42- dihydrogen phosphate
OH- hydroxide MnO4- permanganate
CN- cyanide Cr2O72- dichromate Atoms,
C2H3O2- acetate CrO42- chromate Molecules,
and Ions
O 2- peroxide
Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
 Electrons are transferred from the metal to the
nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract
each other. Only empirical formulas are written.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Writing Formulas
• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
factor. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
• Usually the same as their empirical formulas
• Made up of ions -- actually, a 1:1 ratio of cations to anions
• Ionic compound itself is electrically neutral

-- SUM OF POSITIVE and NEGATIVE
CHARGES MUST EQUAL ZERO!!
• PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE BALANCE applied to formulas of

ionic compounds:
The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on
the anion, AND the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to
the charge on the cation.
Atoms,
Molecules,
MORE TO COME… and Ions
CHARGE BALANCE: How it works
1. Ionic compounds are Examples: CrO3 and CrCl3
electrically NEUTRAL; that
• Both CrO3 and CrCl3 have an overall charge
is, their overall charge equals
ZERO. of zero.
• The oxide anion, O2-, in CrO3 has a -2

2. Simple anions have known charge. The chloride anion, Cl-, in CrCl3 has
negative charges. a -1 charge.
3. The SUM of the positive Use algebra to set up an expression to solve for
charge from the cation and the charge on Cr for each compound:
the negative charge of the • Let x = charge on Cr in CrCl3.
anion must equal ZERO.
• (1)x + (3)(-1) = 0 OR x + (3)(-1) = 0
This is the principle of charge
balance.
Atoms,
Molecules,
(no. of metal cations)(charge on cation) + (no. of nonmetal anions)(charge onIons
and anio
CHARGE BALANCE: How it works
x + (3)(-1) = 0
4. Determine the charge on
the metal cation. x - 3 = 0 ; x = 3  This is the charge on
Cr in CrCl3.
Now, you try this one:

What is the charge on Cr in CrO3?
Atoms,
Molecules,
(no. of metal cations)(charge on cation) + (no. of nonmetal anions)(charge onIons
and anio
Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-
1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32- Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
• OK, so we know the charges on the cation and anion,
respectively… So, how do we write formulas of ionic compounds in
this case?
(no. of metal cations)(charge on cation) + (no. of nonmetal anions)(charge on anio
Try these…
Atoms,
potassium zinc ironMolecules,
(III)
and Ions
© 2015iodide
Pearson Education, Inc. fluoride oxide
(d) Magnesium sulfide
(e) cobalt(II) chloride
(f) Aluminum oxide
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
(d) Strontium hydroxide
(e) Sodium carbonate
(f) Ammonium phosphate
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
What is the formula for mercury (I) carbide?
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Homework is a worksheet
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Hwk: page 73-79:
5, 7, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 65
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
LESSON 4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Inorganic Nomenclature
• Write the name of the cation. If the cation

can have more than one possible charge,
write the charge as a Roman numeral in
parentheses.
• If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic
ion, simply write the name of the
polyatomic ion.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• When there are two oxyanions involving the

same element
– the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
– the one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO2− : nitrite; NO3− : nitrate
• SO32− : sulfite; SO42− : sulfate
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
• Central atoms on the second row have a

bond to, at most, three oxygens; those on the
third row take up to four.
• Charges increase as you go from right to left.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite: ClO2− is
chlorite.
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate: ClO3− is
chlorate.
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and
ends in -ite: ClO− is hypochlorite.
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends
in -ate: ClO4− is perchlorate. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Name the anion obtained by removing one oxygen
atom from the perbromate ion, BrO4–.
a. Hypobromite ion
b. Bromite ion
c. Bromate ion
d. Bromine ion

Name the anion obtained by removing one oxygen
atom from the perbromate ion, BrO4–.
a. Hypobromite ion
b. Bromite ion
c. Bromate ion
d. Bromine ion

Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid ends
in -ide, change the ending
to -ic acid and add the
prefix hydro-.
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid
• If the anion ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid.

– HClO: hypochlorous acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid
• If the anion ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
Atoms,
– HClO4: perchloric acid Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of
Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name of the element
farther to the left in the
periodic table (closer to
the metals) or lower in the
same group is usually
written first.
• A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound (mono- is not
used on the first element
listed, however). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary Compounds
• The ending on the second element is changed
to -ide.
– CO2: carbon dioxide
– CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
• If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of
the element begins with a vowel, the two
successive vowels are often elided into one.
– N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.

• Organic chemistry has its own system of nomenclature.
• The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.
• The first part of the names just listed correspond to the
number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
• When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

something else (a functional group, like -OH in
the compounds above), the name is derived from
the name of the alkane.
• The ending denotes the type of compound.
– An alcohol ends in -ol. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
• Hwk: page 73-79:
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Review Questions
Chapter 2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The nucleus of an atom
contains
a. protons and neutrons.

b. protons and electrons.
c. electrons and neutrons.
d. protons, neutrons, and electrons.

The nucleus of an atom
contains
a. protons and neutrons.

b. protons and electrons.
c. electrons and neutrons.
d. protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Two atoms with the same
atomic number but different
mass numbers are called
a. mutants.
b. isomers.
c. isotopes.
d. symbiots.
Two atoms with the same
atomic number but different
mass numbers are called
a. mutants.
b. isomers.
c. isotopes.
d. symbiots.
Select the incorrect statement
about the mass and volume of
an atom.
a. The mass is determined mostly by the
protons and neutrons.
b. The volume is mostly empty space.
c. The mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
d. The volume is determined by the
arrangement of the protons.

Select the incorrect statement
about the mass and volume of
an atom.
a. The mass is determined mostly by the
protons and neutrons.
b. The volume is mostly empty space.
c. The mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
d. The volume is determined by the
arrangement of the protons.

For an atom of fluorine, the
atomic number is ___ and the
average atomic mass is ___.
a. 9; 18.988 amu
b. 18.998; 9 amu
c. 10; 19 g
d. 9; 9 g

For an atom of fluorine, the
atomic number is ___ and the
average atomic mass is ___.
a. 9; 18.988 amu
b. 18.998; 9 amu
c. 10; 19 g
d. 9; 9 g

Atomic weights on the periodic
table are decimal numbers
instead of integers because
a. the number of protons + neutrons
determines atomic weight.
b. of the existence of isotopes.
c. of the very small mass of electrons
compared to protons and neutrons.
d. the number of protons + electrons
Atomic weights on the periodic
table are decimal numbers
instead of integers because
a. the number of protons + neutrons
b. of the existence of isotopes.
c. of the very small mass of electrons
compared to protons and neutrons.
d. the number of protons + electrons
The elements found on the
right side of the periodic table
tend to ______ electrons.
a. gain
b. lose
c. keep
d. share
The elements found on the
right side of the periodic table
tend to ______ electrons.
a. gain
b. lose
c. keep
d. share
Metals and nonmetals react to
form ________ compounds.
a. molecular
b. mixed
c. empirical
d. ionic

Metals and nonmetals react to
form ________ compounds.
a. molecular
b. mixed
c. empirical
d. ionic

Positive ions are called
a. positrons.
b. anions.
c. cations.
d. nucleons.

Positive ions are called
a. positrons.
b. anions.
c. cations.
d. nucleons.

Compounds composed only of
carbon and hydrogen are
called
a. binary acids.
b. carbohydrates.
c. hydrocarbons.
d. alkanes.
Compounds composed only of
carbon and hydrogen are
called
a. binary acids.
b. carbohydrates.
c. hydrocarbons.
d. alkanes.
The elements located in Group
VIIA (Group 17) on the periodic
table are called
a. alkali metals.
b. noble gases.
c. chalcogens.
d. halogens.
The elements located in Group
VIIA (Group 17) on the periodic
table are called
a. alkali metals.
b. noble gases.
c. chalcogens.
d. halogens.
Which of the formulas below
does not represent a compound
that actually exists?
a. CaCO3
b. H2O2
c. KMnO4
d. Na2PO3
Which of the formulas below
does not represent a compound
that actually exists?
a. CaCO3
b. H2O2
c. KMnO4
d. Na2PO3
Which name is incorrectly
paired with the formula?
a. hydroxide ion; OH–
b. barium(II) chloride; BaCl2
c. ammonia; NH3
d. sulfur dioxide; SO2

Which name is incorrectly
paired with the formula?
a. hydroxide ion; OH–
b. barium(II) chloride; BaCl2
c. ammonia; NH3
d. sulfur dioxide; SO2

Acids produce _____ ions.
a. OH–1
b. OH+1
c. H+1
d. H–1

Acids produce _____ ions.
a. OH–1
b. OH+1
c. H+1
d. H–1

NaOCl is named
a. sodium chlorate.
b. sodium chlorite.
c. sodium perchlorate.
d. sodium hypochlorite.

NaOCl is named
a. sodium chlorate.
b. sodium chlorite.
c. sodium perchlorate.
d. sodium hypochlorite.

LiNO3 is named
a. lithium nitrate.
b. lanthanum nitrate.
c. lanthanum nitrite.
d. lithium nitrite.

LiNO3 is named
a. lithium nitrate.
b. lanthanum nitrate.
c. lanthanum nitrite.
d. lithium nitrite.

The formula for aluminum
carbonate is
a. Al2(CO3)3.
b. AlCO3.
c. Al2C3.
d. Al3(CO3)2.

The formula for aluminum
carbonate is
a. Al2(CO3)3.
b. AlCO3.
c. Al2C3.
d. Al3(CO3)2.

Fe2O3 is named
a. diiron trioxide.
b. iron(III) oxide.
c. ferrous oxide.
d. ironic oxide.

Fe2O3 is named
a. diiron trioxide.
b. iron(III) oxide.
c. ferrous oxide.
d. ironic oxide.

Which acid is not an oxyacid?
a. hydrochloric acid
b. nitric acid
c. sulfurous acid
d. acetic acid

Which acid is not an oxyacid?
a. hydrochloric acid
b. nitric acid
c. sulfurous acid
d. acetic acid

HIO4 is named
a. iodic acid.
b. iodous acid.
c. periodic acid.
d. hydrogen iodate.

HIO4 is named
a. iodic acid.
b. iodous acid.
c. periodic acid.
d. hydrogen iodate.

Cl2O7 is named
a. chlorine(VII) oxide.
b. dichlorine hexaoxide.
c. dichlorine heptaoxide.
d. bichlorine heptaoxide.

Cl2O7 is named
a. chlorine(VII) oxide.
b. dichlorine hexaoxide.
c. dichlorine heptaoxide.
d. bichlorine heptaoxide.

C3H8 is named
a. ethane.
b. propane.
c. propanol.
d. pentane.

C3H8 is named
a. ethane.
b. propane.
c. propanol.
d. pentane.

TEST

02 Atoms Molecules N Ions

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02 Atoms Molecules N Ions

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Lecture Presentation

The theory that atoms

2) All atoms of a given

 The total mass of substances present at the

Different samples of the same compound always contain its con-

If we analyzed any number of samples of sodium chloride, NaCl,

Thus, if the ratio of the MASSES of different elements in a compound

Rutherford WHAT ARE THEY?

SAY IT ISN’T SO!!!

A series of investigations that began

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

a. The cathode and anode are labeled in figure (a).

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. The cathode and anode are labeled in figure (a).

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of

a. Downward because a negative particle is repelled by

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. Downward because a negative particle is repelled by

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

-1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

charged oil droplets

a. Yes, the electrons add significant mass to the oil drop.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. Yes, the electrons add significant mass to the oil drop.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. Beta particles are negatively charged.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. Beta particles are negatively charged.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The prevailing theory

Rutherford’s experiment for measuring scattering of a

Thin gold and other metal foils served as targets for a

a particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

Rutherford formulated his model of the atom, based on

Atom’s positive charges concentrated in the nucleus, a dense

We now know these positively charged particles in the

Typical atomic radius is about 100 pm (pm = picometers).

a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Since some particles

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Rutherford’s model of the atom left one question unanswered:

A number of my colleagues and I postulated that anothe

My coworkers and I carried out the bombardment of

Sir James Chadwick

I gave the name neutrons to the subatomic particles th

A neutron is an electrically neutral particle with a mass

 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol.

The element considered above is oxygen. How many protons

The total number of

mass number = element

atomic number X The accepted format for writing

Or it can be written as X—A ex) Sr-90

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 146 C?