VECTORS

A vector quantity is a quantity that is specified by

magnitude and direction.
Example: force, velocity, acceleration, moment,
displacement, etc.
A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude
only.
Example: temperature, mass, height.
A directed line is used to represent a vector.
e.g. A
O
We write OA to mean vector OA.
O is an initial point and A is a terminal point of OA.
Modulus is the term used to mean the length measure of
a vector.
The modulus of a ( vector a ) is denoted by a .
A unit vector is a vector whose modulus is unity.
The unit vector in the direction of a is denoted by â ,
read as "a cap".
Thus aˆ  1.
If a is a given vector, a unit vector in the direction of
a is given by
a
aˆ 
a
 Components of a vector
Let’s consider the figure
z
D

P ( x, y , z )
r
O
B
y
A
C ( x, y )

x
We denote unit vector parallel to X, Y and Z axes as
i, j and k respectively.
From the figure
OP  r
 OC  CP
 (OA  AC )  CP
 OA  OB  OD

 xi  y j  z k
We know that
OP 2  OC 2  CP 2
 (OA2  AC 2 )  CP 2
r  OP  x 2  y 2  z 2
 DIRECTION COSINES
Suppose OP makes  ,  and  angles with i, j and k
directions respectively.
The direction cosines of OP are
x
cos   .
x y z
2 2 2

y
cos   .
x y z
2 2 2

z
cos   .
x y z
2 2 2
Q1. If the co-ordinates of P are (3, 4, 12) then, find OP, its
magnitude and direction cosines.
Q2. Find a unit vector in direction of a  3i  2 j  6 k .
Q3. Find a vector in the direction of vector 5i  j  2 k
which has magnitude 4 units.

COLINEARITY
Two vectors are said to be colinearity if and only if they
are either along the same line or are parallel to each
other.
C
 AB and BC are along the
B
same line.

A
 Collinear vectors

If a is parallel to b then we can express one vector in

terms of the other vector.
a  b
Where  is a scalar.

Q4. Show that the vectors 2i  3 j  4 k and  4i  6 j  8k

are collinear.
Solution
If a and b are collinear then

a   b.
2i  3 j  4 k   (4i  6 j  4k )
1
 2  4 or   
2
1
 3  6 or   
2
1
4  8 or   
2
The coefficients of components of vectors are
proportional (have the same relative size or we say have
the same ratio). Hence the given vectors are collinear.
 PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
There are
- Scalar product (or Dot product).
- Vector product (or Cross product).

Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors a and b is denoted by
a  b (read as a dot b ) is defined as
a  b  a b cos 
Where  (0     ) is the angle between a and b .
a A
O 
b B
 
If   , then
2

a  b  a b cos  0
2
i.e. If a b  0, then a and b are orthogonal vectors.

We note that
i i  j  j  k  k  1
i j  ik  j k  0
Let a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k

b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k
Then
a b  (a1 i  a2 j  a3 k )  (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )
 a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
The dot product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the
products of their corresponding components.

Q5. Find a  b and the angle between a and b given that

a  5i  j  3 k and b  i  3 j  k.
 PROJECTION
Let’s consider the figure
a
O 
b N B

a  b  a b cos 
a b
 a cos 
b

a cos  ON (Projection of a on b).

Projection of a on b  a  b
b
Q6. Find the projection of 8i  j in the direction of
i  2 j  2 k.

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR ALONG AND

PERPENDICULAR TO A GIVEN VECTOR.
Let’s consider the figure
B
b


O a N A
We want to express b as the sum of vector along a and vector
perpendicular to a .
From the figure

OA  a, OB  b
BN is perpendicular to OA.
 is the angle between a and b .
ON is component of b along
a.
NB is component of b perpendicular to a .
Now, ON  (ON ) aˆ
 (OB  cos  ) aˆ
  b cos   aˆ
a b a

a a
a b
 2
a
a

Therefore, the component of b along a  a  b2 a.

a
From the figure,
ON  NB  b
or NB  b  ON
a b
b 2 a
a

Therefore, the component of b perpendicular to a

a b
b 2
a.
a
Q7. Express the vector a  5i  2 j  5 k as sum of two
vectors such that one is parallel to b  3i  k and the
other perpendicular to b .
 CROSS PRODUCT (or VECTOR PRODUCT)
Let a and b be two non-zero, no parallel vectors and let  be the
angle between them such that 0     .
Then the cross product of a and b is defined as
a  b   a b sin   nˆ
Where
n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b such that
that a , b , n̂ form a right handed system.
i.e.
ab
nˆ  is unit vector perpendicular to the plane
ab
contains a and b pointing in the direction a right-threaded
screw advances when its head is rotated from a to b through the
angle  .
.
Right-threaded screw
n̂  Clockwise rotation  Fastening/Fixing/Tightening.
 Anti-clockwise rotation  Loosing/untie.

b
a B


A
Remarks
The cross product of two vectors a and b is defined such that
- its magnitude is a b sin  , where is the angle between a and b .

- Its direction is perpendicular to both a and b .
i.e. a  (a  b)  0
b  ( a  b)  0
Note. a  b  b  a but a  b  (b  a )
If a  b  0 , where a  0 or b  0 then a or b are parallel
vector.
Useful Results
Since i, j and k are three unit vectors then
 anticlockwise
ii  j  j k k  0 j
i  j  k  j  i  k i
j  k  i  k  j  i
k i  j  i k   j k  clockw ise

Let’s find a b given that

a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k

and b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k
Now,
a  b  (a1 i  a2 j  a3 k )  (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )
 a1 i  (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )  a2 j  (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )  a3 k  (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )

 (a2b3  a3b2 )i  (a1b3  a3b1 ) j  (a1b2  a2b1 )k

i j k
ab
 a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Q8. Find a  b if a  i  7 j  7k and b  3i  2 j  2k .

Q9. Find a vector of magnitude 18 and which is
perpendicular to both the vectors 4i  j  8k and
 j  k.
 APPLICATION OF VECTOR PRODUCT
Area of parallelogram
B C

b

O D a A
Let OA  a , OB  b

a  b   a b sin   nˆ
BD
 OA  OB  nˆ
OB

 (OA  BD)nˆ
a  b  OA  BD
 Base Height
 Area of parallelogram.
 1
Area of a  (Area of parallelog ram).
2

1
 ab
2
1
 Area of a triangle  (Area of parallelog ram).
2

Q10. Find the area of the parallelogram and triangle

with vertices (1, 1, 2), (2, 3, 5) and (1, 5, 5).
Solution
Let O be the origin and P(1, 1, 2), Q(2, 3, 5) and R(1, 5, 5).
Then,
OP  i  j  2k
OQ  2i  3 j  5k
OR  i  5 j  5k
Now,
PQ  OQ  OP  i  j  3k
PR  OR  OP  4 j  3k

i j k
PR  PQ  0 4 3  6i  3 j  4k
1 2 3

PR  PQ  (6) 2  (3) 2  4 2
 61

1
Area of PQR  PR  PQ
2
 Area of parallelog ram  61 sq.units
61
Area of triangle  sq.units
2
 STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE
Let’s consider the figure
Z
b
P
A
a
O Y

Let A be the fixed point with position vector

X
a . i.e. OA  a
Let r be the position vector of any point P on the line drawn
through point A and parallel to b.

i.e. OP  r
AP   b
Where  is some scalar.
  r  a  b
This equation gives the position vector of a point on the
line.
Hence, the vector equation of a line is
r  a  b
Q11. Find the equation of a line which passes through
the point (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the vector
3i  2 j  2k .
 CARTESIAN FORM OF A LINE
We’ve
r  a  b ... (1)
Let r  xi  y j  z k
a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k
b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k ... (2)
Using (1)in (2) we’ve
xi  y j  z k  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k   (b1 i  b2 j  b3 k )
x  a1
 x  a1  b1 or  
b1
y  a2
y  a2  b2 or  
b2
z  a3
z  a3  b3 or  
b3
Thus
x  a1 y  a2 z  a3
 
b1 b2 b3
This is Cartesian/symmetrical form of a line.

x  a1  b1 , y  a2  b2 , z  a3  b3 .

These are parametric forms of a line.

Q12. Find the equation of the line which passes through

the point (-2, 4, -5) and parallel to the line given by

x 3 y 4 z 8
  .
3 5 6
Q13. Find the vector equation of the line through the
point A(3, 4, -7) and B(5, 1, 6).

Q14. The Cartesian equation of a line is

x 5 y  4 z 6
  .
3 7 2
Find the vector equation of the line.

Q15. Find the coordinates of the point, where the line

through (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4, 1) crosses the yz-plane.
Solution
Given the points (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4, 1).
Let
a  5i  j  6k
b  (3  5)i  (4  1) j  (1  6)k
 2i  3 j  5k

The Cartesian equation of a line through a and parallel

to b is
x  5 y 1 z  6
  .
2 3 5
The line crosses the yz-plane when x=0. Thus

0  5 y 1 z  6
  .
2 3 5
On solving we get that the line crosses yz-plane at the

 17 13 
Point  0, ,  .
 2 2

Q16. Prove that the points A(1, 3, 2), B (4, 2,  2) and

C (5, 5, 10) are collinear.
Solution
If the 3 points are collinear then we can write
AB   BC
Alternatively,
The equation of the line passing through points A and B
is
x 1 y  3 z  2
 
 4 1 2  3  2  2
 x 1 y  3 z  2
or   (*)
3 1 4
If the given points are collinear, then point C must lie on
the line AB.
 C (5, 5, 10) must satisfy (*)

5  1 5  3 10  2
 
3 1 4
2  2  2
Hence the given points A, B, C are collinear.
 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
Let the vector equations of two given lines are
r  a1   b1

r  a2   b2
The angle between the lines is the angle between their
parallel vectors.
Thus, if  is the angle between the given lines, then
b1  b2
cos  
b1 b2

If the lines are parallel, then b and b2 are parallel.

1

b b for some scalar .

1 2
If
b1  b11 i  b12 j  b13 k
b2  b21 i  b22 j  b23 k

When
b1   b2

We’ve
b11 b12 b13
 
b21 b22 b23

Q17. Find the angle between the pair of lines:

r  2i  5 j  k   (3i  2 j  6k )
and
r  7i  6k   (i  2 j  2k )
Q17. Find the angle between the pair of lines:
5 x y 3
 , z  5 and
3 1

1 y z  5
x  .
3 2
Q18. Find the value of  so that the lines
1 x y  2 z  3 x 1 6 z
   y 1 
3 2 2 and 3 7

are perpendicular to each other.

 SKEW LINES
Skew lines are non-parallel non-intersecting lines.
// lines skew lines
Don’t intersect Don’t intersect
Coplanar Non-coplanar
L J
M

K
Let’s consider the figure L1
A
S

L2
B
D

Let a1 be position vector of point A, a2 be position

vector of point B.

L1 : r  a1   b1
L 2 : r  a2  t b2
Projection of AB on SD  AB  SD
SD
Skew lines exist on parallel planes.

L1
S
L1 and L2 are skew lines
n

D L2

There is one unique line, which is perpendicular to both

L1 and L2 .

The line SD is the line shortest distance between lines and

L1 L2.
Projection of AB on SD  SD

SD
SD  AB  (*)
SD

SD is parallel to b1  b2 ( vector perpendicular to both b1 and b2 ).

SD b1  b2
 (**)
SD b1  b2

Using (**) in (*) results

b1  b2
SD  AB 
b1  b2
Therefore,
b1  b2
 
SD  a2  a1 
b1  b2

Q19. Find the shortest distance between the lines given

by
r  i  2 j  3k   (i  3 j  2k )

and
r  4i  5 j  6k  t (2i  3 j  k )
Solution
Let
, a  4i  5 j  6 k , b1  i  3 j  2k
a1  i  2 j  3k 2

and b2  2i  3 j  k .
Using the formula
b1  b2

SD  a2  a1  
b1  b2

we get SD  0.69 units

Alternatively,
Let P(1   , 2  3 , 3  2 ), Q(4  2t , 5  3t , 6  t ) , b1  i  3 j  2k
and b2  2i  3 j  k .
PQ  (3  2t   )i  (3  3t  3 ) j  (3  t  2 )k (1)
When PQ is perpendicular to both lines we’ve

PQ  b1  0 i.e. 5t  14  0 (2)

and
PQ  b2  0 i.e. 14t  5  18 (3)
On solving (2) and (3) we get
(t ,  )  (1.473684211, 0.526315789) (4)
Using (4) in (1) results

PQ  0.473684211i  0.157894734 j  0.473684211k

PQ  0.688247201
Therefore, PQ  0.69 to 2d . p
 CONDITION FOR TWO LINES TO INTERSECT
If the lines intersect, the shortest distance between them
is zero.
b1  b2

i.e. a2  a1    0 for intersecting lines.
b1  b2
Or
a 2  
 a1  b1  b2  0

Q20. Show that the lines

x 1 y  2 z  3 x  4 y 1
  and  z
2 3 4 5 2
intersect.
Alternatively,
Let
x 1 y  2 z  3
1    ... (1)
2 3 4

x  4 y 1
2   z ... (2)
5 2

P(21  1, 31  2, 41  3) is the general point on (1) and

Q(52  4, 22  1, 2 ) is the general point on (2).
The given lines will intersect if they have the common
point. i.e. when
21  1  52  4 or 21  52  3
31  2  22  1 or 31  22  1
41  3  2 or 41  2  3
On solving we get
1  1, 2  1
This shows the lines have common point hence the lines
intersect.
Putting 1  1 in point P or putting 2  1 in point Q
we get the common point is (1,  1,  1).
 SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN PARALLEL LINES
Let l1 : r  a1   b and l2 : r  a2  t b be parallel lines.
A l1 : r  a1   b


l2 : r  a2  t b
C B

Points A and B are given by position vectors a1 and a2

respectively.
AC
sin   or AC  AB sin 
AB
Now,
AB  b  AB b sin 

 AC b
Or
AB  b
AC 
b

Thus the shortest distance SD between parallel lines is

given by
a 2  a1  b
SD 
b

Q21. Find the shortest distance between

r  i  2 j  3k   (i  j  k ) and

r  4i  2 j  k  t (i  j  k )
Ans. SD  3.56 units(To 2 d . p )
 PLANES
A plane is a flat, two dimensional surface that extends
infinitely far.
A plane consists of all vectors that are orthogonal to a
given vector n̂ .
Let’s consider the figure

N P Let
ON=p= The distance of the given
plane from the origin.
r n̂ = The unit vector perpendicular
to the plane.
O r = The position vector of any
point on the plane.
NP  ON  0
OP  ON   ON  0
  r  p nˆ   p nˆ  0
r  nˆ  p
This is the standard equation of the plane in vector form.

Q22. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a

distance 5 units from the origin and which has i as
the unit vector normal to it.

Q23. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a

distance 7 units from the origin and which is
normal to the vector 3i  5 j  6k .
 CARTESIAN FORM OF A PLANE
Let r  xi  y j  z k .
nˆ  l i  m j  nk .
r  nˆ  lx  my  nz.
where l  m  n  1
2 2 2
lx  my  nz  p
This is called the Cartesian equation of the plane.

Q24. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane

r  (2i  3 j  4k )  1.
Q25. Find the direction cosines of the normal to the
plane 3 x  4 y  12 z  52. Also, find the length of the
perpendicular from the origin to the plane.
Q26. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from the origin to the plane 2 x  3 y  4 z  12  0.

Q27. If the coordinates of the perpendicular drawn from

the origin to the plane is (4,  2,  5), find the
equation of the plane.
Q28. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the
plane through the point with position vector 2i  j  k
and perpendicular to the vector 4i  2 j  3k .
Q29. Find the point of intersection between the line
r  2i  2 j  3k   (i  j  4k ) and a plane
r  (3i  2 j  6k )  1.
Q30. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the
plane through the point (1, 2,  4) and parallel
to the lines r  i  2 j  4k   (2i  3 j  6k ) and
r  i  3 j  5k  t (i  j  k ).

Q31. Show that the lines r  2 j  3k   (i  2 j  3k ) and

r  2i  6 j  3k  t (2i  3 j  4k ) are coplanar.
Also, find the equation of the plane containing the
lines in vector form.
 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES
Angle between two planes is equal to the angle between
the normals to them from any point.

n1
n2

Let n1 and n2 be normals of planes

1 and 2 respectively.
The angle  between the two
planes is given by
n1  n2
cos  
n1 n2
Two planes are perpendicular to each other if
n1  n2  0

When two planes are parallel we have

n1   n2 ... (1)

Let
n1  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k
n2  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k ... (2)
Applying (2) in (1) get
a1 a2 a3
 
b1 b2 b3
This is condition for two planes to be parallel.
Q32. Find the angle between the planes
r  (3i  4 j  5k )  0 and r  (2i  j  2k )  0.

Q33. Show that the planes r  (3i  6 j  9k )  7 and

r  (2i  4 j  6k )  2 are parallel.

ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE

line normal Let the equation of the line be l : r  a   b
90   and the plane be  : r  n  d

The angle between l and  is complement
plane of the angle between b and n .
bn
cos (90   ) 
b n
 bn 
Therefore   sin 
1


 b n 
Q34. Find the angle between the line
r  2i  2 j  k   (2i  3 j  2k ) and the plane
r  (3i  2 j  5k )  4.