ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE

MODES
PRECY ANN MAE D. REYES
Reproduction

 Fundamental biological process in which new

individual organisms (“offspring”) are
produced from their “parents”.
 Ensures the continuity of species
Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction
 Parent produces genetically similar/identical
offspring

 Sexual Reproduction
 Production of gametes (sex cells) via meiosis
 Fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization)
Modes of Reproduction in animals
Fission

Budding
Asexual
Reproduction
Fragmentation
Types of Reproduction

Parthenogenesis

Ovuliparity

Oviparity
Fertilization
Ovoviviparity
Histotrophic
Sexual viviparity
Viviparity
Reproduction Hemotrophic
Simultaneous viviparity
Hermaphroditism
Hermaphroditism
Sequential
Hermaphroditism
Asexual Reproduction

 Fission (Binary fission)

 occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some
invertebrate, multi-celled organisms.
 Some unicellular eukaryotic organisms undergo
by mitosis
 In other organisms, part of the individual
separates and forms a second individual.
Binary fission is a form of cell division in eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, it is a form of asexual reproduction
 Examples:

Coral polyps reproduce asexually by fission. (credit:

G. P. Schmahl, NOAA FGBNMS Manager)
sea cucumbers (Echinodermata) of the
genus Holothuria, dividing into two
halves across the oral-aboral axis
Asexual Reproduction

 Budding
 results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or
body region leading to a separation from the
original organism into two individuals.
 commonly in some invertebrate animals such as
corals and hydras.
 Examples:

Hydra reproduce asexually through budding Some corals reproducing through budding

video:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/wfbhwq95Duc
Asexual Reproduction

 Fragmentation
 breaking of the body into two parts with
subsequent regeneration.
 may occur through accidental damage, damage
from predators, or as a natural form of
reproduction
 observed in sponges, some cnidarians,
turbellarians, echinoderms, and annelids.
 Examples:

(a) Linckia multifora is a species of sea star that can reproduce asexually
via fragmentation. In this process, (b) an arm that has been shed grows Fragmentation of annelids
into a new sea star. (credit a: modifiction of work by Dwayne Meadows,
NOAA/NMFS/OPR)
Asexual Reproduction

 Parthenogenesis
 form of asexual reproduction in which an egg
develops into an individual without being
fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either
haploid or diploid, depending on the process in the
species. 
 “incomplete form of sexual reproduction” 
 occurs in invertebrates such as water fleas,
rotifers, aphids, stick insects, and ants, wasps, and
bees--produce haploid males (drones)
Example:
Sexual Reproduction

 combination of (usually haploid) reproductive

cells from two individuals to form a third
(usually diploid) unique offspring.
 produces offspring with novel combinations
of genes.
 can be an adaptive advantage in unstable or
unpredictable environments.
External Fertilization

 usually occurs in aquatic environments where

both eggs and sperm are released into the water. 
 happens during the process of spawning where
one or several females release their eggs and the
male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the
same time.
 Ovuliparity- External fertilization (egg cells
released into the environment and fertilized by
males)
Examples:

During sexual reproduction in toads, the male grasps the female from
behind and externally fertilizes the eggs as they are deposited. (credit:
Bernie Kohl)
Internal Reproduction

 occurs most often in terrestrial animals,

although some aquatic animals also use this
method.
 may occur by the male directly depositing
sperm in the female during mating.
 occur by the male depositing sperm in the
environment
 Oviparity
 fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body
and develop there, receiving nourishment from
the yolk that is a part of the egg.
 occurs in some bony fish, some reptiles, a few
cartilaginous fish, some amphibians, a few
mammals, and all birds.
 Ovoviviparity
 fertilized eggs are retained in the female, and the
embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s
yolk.
 occurs in some bony fish (like the
platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus, some sharks,
lizards, some snakes (garter snake Thamnophis
sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate
animals (Madagascar hissing
cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa).
 Viviparity
 the young are born alive.
 They obtain their nourishment from the female
and are born in varying states of maturity.
 occurs in most mammals,some cartilaginous fish,
and a few reptiles.
 Examples:

In (a) oviparity, young develop in eggs outside the female body, as with these Harmonia axydridis beetles hatching. Some aquatic
animals, like this (b) pregnant Xiphophorus maculatus are ovoviparous, with the egg developing inside the female and nutrition
supplied primarily from the yolk. In mammals, nutrition is supported by the placenta, as was the case with this (c) newborn
squirrel. (credit b: modification of work by Gourami Watcher; credit c: modification of work by “audreyjm529″/Flickr)
 Histotrophic viviparity
 Embryos acquire nutrients from:
1) other tissues (skin/glands)
2) oophagy (feeding on eggs produced by
ovary); e.g. some sharks
3) adelphophagy (fetus feeds on sibling
embryos); e.g. marine snails and worms, some
sharks
 Hemotrophic
 Embryo acquires nutrients from female (often
from placenta)
 Occurs in most mammals
Hermaphroditism

 occurs in animals in which one individual has

both male and female reproductive systems.
 Occurs in earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and
snails.
 may self-fertilize, but typically they will mate
with another of their species, fertilizing each
other and both producing offspring. 
 Sequential hermaphrodites
 Individual born as one sex but can later change
into the opposite sex.
 occurs when an organism changes its sex at some
point of time in their life.
 Common in fish and gastropods
 Protogynous hermaphrodites
 species are capable of sex change from females to
males, and this is predicted to be evolutionary
favoured when reproductive outputs of males
outweighs that of being a female. 
 widely known to occur in Labridae, as well as
many other reef fishes including Pomacanthidae
and Serranidae.
 Protandrous hermaphrodites
 very much rarer
  females are derived from sex changed males.
 most widely known protandrous hermaphrodites
are clownfishes, which includes all species in the
only two genus Amphiprion and Premnas.
 Serial bidirectional hermaphrodites
  unique and uncommon form of hermaphroditism
seen in certain reef fish.
 sex changers can switch to and fro, depending on
the situation.
 Simultaneous hermaphrodites
 Individual has both male and female sexual organs at the same time
 most often in Serranidae and Gobiidae

 Hypoplectrus indigo is one species that displays the standard out crossing
style of mating. Prior to fertilization, two individuals pair up for a process
called egg-trading, which involved three steps.
 a) both fish package their eggs into parcels
 b) courtship is initiated by the individual releasing their parcel first, and
 c) partners take turns releasing an egg parcel every few minutes and
externally fertilizing the mate’s released parcel. This carries on until both
individuals have fertilized each other.
 Examples:
Panel A: Image author: Kevin
Bryant. Panel B: Image
author: Nick Hopgood. Panel
C: Image author: Mike
Wesemann. Reused with
permission from Todd, E. V.,
Liu, H., Muncaster, S., &
Gemmell, N. J. (2016).
Bending genders: The biology
of natural sex change in
fish. Sexual Development, 10,
223–241.
Ecological context of (A) protogynous,
(B) protandrous and (C) serial
bidirectional sex-change in social fishes.
(A) The bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma
bifasciatum) is typical of many
protogynous hermaphrodites. A
brightly-colored terminal-phase (TP)
male defends and courts a harem of
smaller females on a tropical reef in the
Caribbean sea, one of which will
eventually change sex to replace him.
(B) A colony of cinnamon clownfish
(Amphiprion melanopus) inhabiting a
bubble anemone. These protandrous
hermaphrodites form monogamous
breeding pairs consisting of a dominant
female and a smaller male, who share
shelter space with several immature
subordinates. (C) A pair of Maori coral
gobies (Gobiodon histrio), a species
widespread on tropical reefs of the
Indo-West Pacific. Monogamous coral
gobies live a sessile lifestyle occupying
spatially isolated coral colonies, where
serial bidirectional sex change enables
any two fish to form a heterosexual
breeding pair.
Advantages of Asexual and Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Mates not required. it produces variation in the offspring

The process of reproduction is the species can adapt to new environments due

rapid. to variation, which gives them a survival
advantage

An enormous number of humans can speed up natural selection

organisms can be produced in very through selective breeding, which can be used,
less time. for example, to increase food production.

Positive genetic influences pass on a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals
to successive generations. in a population

It occurs in various environments.

Disadvantages of Asexual and
Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Lack of diversity. Time and energy are needed to find
a mate
 More susceptible to the same diseases and It is not possible for an isolated
nutrient deficiencies as the parent.  individual
They are unable to adapt to the changing
environment.
A single change in the environment would
eliminate the entire species.
 END
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