Murugesh .

Roll No : 25
26-09-2007
 Computer Network
Computer Network means that
there are interconnected collection of two
or more autonomous Computers.
The connection need not be via a
copper wire, fiber optics,microwaves ,and
communication satellites can also be used.
Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
Need for a Computer Network
• Resource Sharing
• High Reliability
• Saving Money
• Scalability
• Communication Medium
• Remote Access
• Interactive Entertainment
 Some Topologies
• Star
• Ring
• Tree
• Complete
• Intersecting Ring
• Irregular
Client Server
vs
Peer to Peer
Client Server Model
 A typical example for a Client –Server
file transfer is an FTP server where the client
and server programs are quite distinct, and
the clients initiate the download / uploads and
the servers react to and satisfy these
requests.
 Peer to Peer Network
A peer-to-peer (or "P2P")
computer Network exploits diverse
connectivity between participants in a
network and the cumulative bandwidth of
network participants rather than
conventional centralized resources where
a relatively low number of server provide
the core value to a service or application.
 A pure peer-to-peer network does
not have the notion of clients or servers,
but only equal peer nodes that
simultaneously function as both "clients"
and "servers" to the other nodes on the
network.
This model of network arrangement
differs from the client-server model where
communication is usually to and from a
central server.
Peer to Peer Connection
 Classification of P2P Network
• Pure peer-to-peer
• Centralized P2P network
• Decentralized P2P network
• Structured P2P network
• Unstructured P2P network
• Hybrid P2P network (Centralized and
Decentralized)
 Pure peer-to-peer:

• Peers act as equals, merging the roles of

clients and server
• There is no central server managing the
network
• There is no central router
• Hybrid peer-to-peer

• Has a central server that keeps information on peers and

responds to requests for that information.

• Peers are responsible for hosting available resources (as

the central server does not have them), for letting the
central server know what resources they want to share,
and for making its shareable resources available to
peers that request it.

• Route terminals are used addresses, which are

referenced by a set of indices to obtain an absolute
address.
 A Peer-to-peer capable network
operating system, such as Windows 95, Windows 98
and Windows for Workgroups are usually the best
choices for home and small office networks.

They do an excellent job of sharing

applications, data, printers, and other local resources
across a handful of computers.

Individual resources such as disk

drives, CD-ROM drives, scanners and even printers
are transformed into shared resources that are
accessible from each of the computers.
 Peer-to-peer networks come in
three flavors

• Collaborative Computing

• Instant Messaging

• Affinity Communities
 Collaborative Computing
Also referred to as
distributed computing, it combines the
idle or unused CPU processing power
and/or free disk space of many
computers in the network.
Collaborative computing
is most popular with science and
biotech organizations where intense
computer processing is required.
 Instant Messaging
One very common form of P2P
networking is Instant Messaging (IM)
where software applications, allow users
to chat via text messages in real-time.

MSN Messenger or Yahoo Instant

Messenger
 Affinity Communities
Affinity communities is the group
of P2P networks that is based around file-
sharing and became widely known and
talked about due to the public legal issues
surrounding the direct file sharing group,
Napster.
Affinity Communities are based on
users collaborating and searching other
user's computers for information and files.
 Before Taking the Peer-to-Plunge
Peer-to-peer networks work remarkably well in certain
circumstances; however there are a few things to consider before setting one
up.

• Size
Peer-to-peer networks are designed for connecting small
numbers of computers. They tend to run into problems at around 5-10
computers or more.

• Security
Security on a peer-to-peer network is not very powerful. So if
you have security concerns go for something you can control (read server!)
Since on a peer to peer network the users give access to folders, they can
choose not to require passwords. This lack of consistency has a tremendous
impact on the security of your network and you will need adequate training
for your users to prevent problems.

• Growth
If your organization is growing rapidly, it will usually out grow a
peer-to-peer network very quickly. While a peer-to-peer network may work
fine for up to around ten computers, it almost certainly won't for twenty.
• Training
In a peer-to-peer network, the users handle
administration. This means that all the users need to be
trained in how to share files, folders, and printers. In a
peer-to-peer network, suddenly shutting down your
computer can cause one of your colleagues to be unable
to print or worse still corrupt your shared database if you
have one…
• Hosting Resources
The last concern is that each computer that
attaches to another computer, whether for printing or for
file sharing, takes up system resources on the hosting
computer. If the drain becomes dramatic enough to slow
down the host computer (which someone else is working
on) then perhaps it is time to start thinking about a
dedicated server.
 Connection Established

Three Ways

1) 10BaseT Cabling
2) Thin Coax Cabling
3) Mixing 10BaseT & Coax

10BaseT Cabling:

When 10BaseT cabling is used, a strand of

cabling is inserted between each computer and a hub. If
you have 5 computers, you'll need 5 cables. No cable can
exceed 325 feet in length. Because the cables from all of
the computers converge at a common point (normally a
hub), a 10BaseT network forms a star configuration, or
geometric design, when viewed from above.
 10BaseT Category What It's Used For

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5 Fast Ethernet (and everything below)

4 Networks other than Ethernet
3 10Mbps 10BaseT
2 Alarms, telephone voice lines
1 Unknown (not rated for anything specific)
 Thin Coax Cabling

The geometric design that is formed when thin

coax cabling is used is called a linear or backbone
configuration. The reason for this is that thin coax is
always arranged in a straight line of PCs, hubs and/or
other devices.
Thin coax networks always requires
termination, which is the act of "plugging" the ends of the
network. Instead of inserting an incoming thin coax cable
directly into a computer, a T-connector is inserted
instead, splitting the network adapter's input port into two
separate ports.
One port receives an incoming network cable;
the other receives an outgoing network cable. If the PC
is at the end of the network chain, a terminator plug is
connected to the empty side of the T-connector.
 Mixing 10BaseT & Coax

Thin coax backbones and 10BaseT cabling & hubs can be

connected together to allow for a wide variety of expansion
options. In the example below, a thin coax backbone connects
two 10BaseT hubs together, along with a computer in-between.
Each hub, in turn, branches off to still more computers with
10BaseT cabling. Note that the ends of the thin coax backbone
are terminated.
• Use thin coax cabling if you...
------------------------------------------------
ii. have fewer than 10 PCs,
iii. don't have any portable computers,
iv. and don't plan to expand

• Use 10BaseT cabling with a hub if you...

------------------------------------------------
vii. have 16 or fewer PCs within a 325 foot radius of each
other,
viii. have portable computers,
ix. and/or you plan to expand

• Use both thin coax and 10BaseT together if...

------------------------------------------------
xii. you have more than 16 computers,
xiii. or the radius of your workgroup is more than 300 feet
 Once the networking hardware has been
installed, a peer-to-peer network software package must
be installed on each of the computers. This software
package allows information to be transferred back and
forth between the computers, hard disks, and other
devices connected to the computers or to the network
when users request it .
P2P Architecture
Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking architecture consists of the
following components:

1) Graphing
The Graphing component is responsible for maintaining a set

of connected nodes known as a graph and providing flooding

and
replication of data across the graph.

The Graphing component uses the Flood & Synchronization,

Store, and Graph Maintenance subcomponents.

2) Grouping
The Grouping component is the security layer provided
by default on top of a graph. The security layer defines the
security model behind group creation, invitation, and
connection to the group. The Grouping component
uses the Group Security and Group Security Service Provider
(SSP) sub components.
3) NSP
The Name Service Provider (NSP) component provides a
mechanism to access an arbitrary name service provider. In the case
of Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking, peer-to peer applications use
the NSP interface to access PNRP.

4) PNRP (Peer Name Resolution Protocol)

The PNRP component provides peer-to-peer name resolution.

Identity manager enables the creation and management of peer-to
peer identities.

5) Microsoft TCP/IP version 6 protocol

The Microsoft TCP/IP version 6 protocol (IPv6) provides the
transport over which Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking operates.
 Most network operating system software (such as
Windows 95 98,XP,and VISTA) allows each peer-to-peer computer
to determine which resources will be available for use by all other
users of the remaining computers on the network. Specific hard and
floppy disk drives, directories, files, printers, and all other resources
can be attached or detached from the network via software.

When one computers disk has been configured so that it

is being shared, it will usually appear as a new or additional drive to
the other computer users.

As an example
If user A has an A and C drive on his computer, and user B
configures his entire C drive so that it is shared, user A can map to the user B's C drive
and have an A, C, and D drive (user A's D drive is actually user B's C drive). Directories
operate in a similar fashion. If user A has an A & C drive, and user B configures his
"C:\WINDOWS" and "C:\DOS" directories as sharable, user A can map to those directories
and then have an A, C, D, and E drive (user A's D is user B's C:\WINDOWS, and E is user
B's C:\DOS).
 Because drives can be easily
shared between peer-to-peer computers,
data only needs to be stored on one
computer, not two or three.

As an example, let's say that

three computers have Microsoft Word
installed. Instead of saving documents and
other data on all three machines, you can
save all of the documents on one computer.
 Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking
Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking is a developer
platform to create peer-to-peer applications for computers
running Windows XP with Service Pack 2, Windows XP
Professional x64 Edition, Windows XP with Service Pack 1
and the Advanced Networking Pack for Windows XP, or
Windows Vista™. The long-term goal of Windows Peer-to-
Peer Networking is the following
To enable people to communicate securely and
share information with one another without a dependence
on centralized servers, but to work even better when servers
are present. Computers running Windows Vista already
have Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking installed. For
computers running Windows XP with SP2, do the following
to install Windows Peer-to-Peer Networking
1. Click Start, click Control Panel, and then click
Add or Remove Programs.

2. Click Add/Remove Windows Components.

3. In Components, click Networking Services (but

do not select its check box), and then click Details.

4. Select the Peer-to-Peer check box, and then click

OK.

5. Click Next, and then follow the instructions in

the wizard.
 Grid computing

Grid computing is also called "peer-

to-peer computing" and "distributed computing,"
A parallel processing architecture in which CPU
resources are shared across a network, and all
machines function as one large supercomputer.

It allows unused CPU capacity in all

participating machines to be allocated to one
application that is extremely computation
intensive and programmed for parallel
processing.
 Utilizing Idle Time
In a large enterprise, hundreds or thousands
of desktop machines sit idle at any given moment. Even
when a user is at the computer reading the screen and
not typing or clicking, it constitutes idle time.
These unused cycles can be put to use on large
computational problems. Likewise, the millions of users
on the Internet create a massive amount of wasted
machine cycles that can be harnessed instead.
This is precisely what the Search for Extra
Terrestrial Intelligence program does with Internet users
all over the world.
Naturally, grid computing over the Internet
requires more extensive security than within a single
enterprise,
 Anonymous P2P
• An anonymous P2P computer network is a particular type of peer-
to-peer network in which the users and their nodes are
pseudonymous by default. The primary difference between regular
and anonymous networks is in the routing method of their respective
network architectures. These networks allow for unfettered free flow
of information, legal or otherwise.

• The P2P community's interest in anonymous P2P has increased

rapidly in recent years for many reasons, including distrust of
government and digital imprimatur. Such a network may also appeal
to those wishing to share copyrighted files illegally - organizations
such as the Recording Industry Association of America and the
British Phonographic Industry have successfully tracked and sued
users on non-anonymous P2P networks.
 Security Mechanisms
All security mechanisms deployed today are based on either
symmetric/secret key or asymmetric/public key cryptography, or
sometimes a combination of the two. Here we will introduce the basic
aspects of the secret key and public key techniques and compare their
main characteristics.

1)Secret Key Techniques:

Secret key techniques are based on the fact that the sender
and recipient share a secret, which is used for various cryptographic
operations, such as encryption and decryption of messages and the
creation and verification of message authentication data. This secret
key must be exchanged in a separate out of bound procedure prior to
the intended communication.
2)Public Key Techniques
Public Key Techniques are based on
the use of asymmetric key pairs. Usually each
user is in possession of just one key pair. One of
the pair is made publicly available, while the other
is kept private.
Because one is available there is no
need for an out of band key exchange, however
there is a need for an infrastructure to distribute
the public key authentically. Because there is no
need for pre-shared secrets prior to a
communication, public key techniques are ideal for
supporting security between previously unknown
parties.
 P2P Routing
Once a servent is connected to the network it can send
information into the network to find out about other servents in the
system. The other servents can respond to this request by sending
information about their own state, including their IP addresses, the
number of files it has decided to share on the network and the total
size of these files.
A servent can then query the network for files meeting
certain search criteria. If a servent has files meeting the criteria, it will
respond with a list of appropriate file details. The servent that made
the initial request can then ask an appropriate servent for a particular
file and have that file routed to it.

Descriptor Header

Byte
0 - 15 16 17 18 19 - 22
Positions

Descriptor Payload
Contents Time To Live Hops Payload Length
ID Descriptor
Descriptor ID
This is used to uniquely identify
the particular message on the network. It is
created by the client and must be unique (in
theory) to ensure that certain other servants
can detect when they are seeing a message
from a particular servant that they have
processed before.
Payload Descriptor
This defines the type of descriptor
which is following the header.
Time To Live (TTL):
This field outlines the maximum amount of servants
that the message can be routed through before it must be discarded.
Each time the message passes through a servant this field is
decremented.
When the value reaches 0 the message is discarded.
This ensures that a particular message will not be routed continually
around the network. This would cause an immediate degradation of
network performance if all servants were sending out many packets in
succession which were never being removed from the network.

Hops:
This is a count of the number of servents through
which the message has been passed. The count is incremented each
time it passes through a new servent.
Payload Length:
The length of the payload immediately following this header.
This header is important because the protocol does not define any
flags to define where one payload ends and the next descriptor
begins.
This means that if the fields in the descriptor header are
invalid then that message cannot be routed. As a result it is impossible
to find the beginning of the next descriptor and the connection must be
terminated
Peer to Peer File sharing Program

 Kazaa
 Napster
 BitTorrent
 WinMX
 Shareaza
 Ares
 Bear Share
 Kazaa

The Kazaa software family has

been the single-most popular P2P file
sharing program / system of all time.
Kazaa is fast and easy to use. However
Kazaa software and the FastTrack network
it utilizes appear to be declining rapidly in
popularity and availability of files.
 Kazaa provides a central directory of
shared files, Kazaa distributes its directories to
"supernodes," which are the users' own computers.
Supernodes communicate with other supernodes
to complete a search.

Users with fast computers and

connections are automatically made supernodes
unless they disallow it. As a supernode, no more
than 10% of the CPU power is used.
 The Kazaa software enables users to view content available from
other users as well as paid content from Altnet, which uses digital rights
management (DRM). Although Kazaa encourages users who wish to share
content not to share copyrighted material, there is no way to enforce this policy.
 Napster
Napster is a file sharing service that paved the way
for decentralized P2P file-sharing programs which is now
used for many of the same reasons and can download
music, pictures, and other files.
 BitTorrent
BitTorrent is another free P2P
software application. It has attracted a loyal
following among those interested in sharing movies
and television programs.
The offical BitTorrent P2P client
generally does not support bandwidth throttling,
meaning that it will tend to monopolize a network
connection and not allow surfing the Internet or
otherwise utilizing the network while files are being
downloaded or uploaded. A freely-available
alternative BitTorrent client overcomes this
limitation.