Modal Auxiliaries

Modal auxiliaries: Introduction

Modal auxiliaries are also sometimes called modal verbs or modals. The
following are modal auxiliaries:

FORM
Present Past form
* Positive: subject + modal :
Pure
/ must see you tomorrow.
Modals We must go now.

can could * Negative: subject + modal + not/n't :

may might You shouldn't go to bed so late.
They needn't come if they don't want to.
will would
shall should * Question: modal + subject :
must Can you help me?
Will she be here soon?
 Types of Modals
 Modals include modal verbs, semi-modal
verbs (also called marginal modals) and
other modal expressions. They combine
with main verbs and modify their meanings.
A modal may have several different
meanings, while similar meanings may be
expressed by using different modals:
 He can't be at home; I've just met him.
(deduction)
 Unless you finish your homework, you
can't go to the cinema. (prohibition)
   Can I help you? (offer)
 May I help you? (offer)
•Modal auxiliaries cannot be:
-put into different tenses.
-used as infinitives.
-used as gerunds or present participles.

They can be followed by the infinitive in different forms:

Active Passive
bare infinitive: be + past participle:
must take must be taken
be + present
participle:
must be taking
have + past participle: have been + past
participle:
must have taken must have been
taken
have been + present
participle:
must have been
taking
 Modal verbs always come first in a verb phrase and are
followed by a bare infinitive. When used with a perfect
infinitive, modal verbs usually refer to past time:

 I could hear the dog barking outside. (modal + simple bare infinitive)

 You must be joking. (modal + continuous bare infinitive)

 He may have caught the train. (modal + perfect bare infinitive)

 You must have been waiting for hours. (modal + perfect continuous
bare infinitive)
 The forms of pure modals
 The main characteristics of the pure modals are:
 they never change their form irrespective of the subject of the sentence
e.g. he can swim, not *he cans swim
 following on from the above feature, they do not change to show past tense
e.g. she had to leave not *she musted leave
 they all carry the negative of the sentence by the addition of not/n't
e.g. I can't remember not *I don't can remember
 they all form questions by inversion with the subject of the sentence. 
e.g. should I stay?
 they are all followed by the base form of the verb without the addition of to 
e.g. he can swim not *he can to swim
 Contracted forms of will and would are often used in spoken and in informal
written language ('ll and 'd):
 
 I'd tell you if I knew.
 They'll be here soon.
 
Modal verbs take no -s in the third person singular:
  He might be at the office.

 Modal verbs form their negative and interrogative like other auxiliaries and
not with do:
 
 I can't swim.
 Can you swim?
 The following contracted negative forms are often used
in spoken and in informal written language:
 cannot » can't
 could not » couldn't
 might not » mightn't
 will not » won't
 shall not » shan't
 would not » wouldn't
 should not » shouldn't
 must not » mustn't
 Modal verbs have no proper past tense;
however, could, would, might and should
may be used to refer to past time:

 I could swim when I was five.

 Modal verbs have no infinitive, -ing or past participle
forms and cannot be followed by other modal verbs.
When necessary, modal idioms or other expressions are
used instead of them:

 If you want to be a sailor, you must can swim.

 If you want to be a sailor, you must be able to swim.
 
 I have canned swim since the age of five.
 I have been able to swim since the age of five.
 Affirmative (+) forms

 Modal verbs are placed first in the verb phrase (after the subject)
and are followed by a verb in the base form. The next verb may be a
main verb or an auxiliary verb (be, have):

 Modal verbs do not change form for tense or person. Modal verbs
can be followed by the substitute verb do:

 A: We thought he might sell the house

 B: Yes, he could do.

 Modal verbs cannot be used with another modal verb:

 Windsurfing can be difficult.

 Not: Windsurfing can might be difficult or Windsurfing might can be difficult. 

 Modal verbs always go before other verbs in a verb phrase:

  [in a restaurant after a meal]
 
 I think the bill could be expensive.
   Not: I think the bill could expensive.
 
 You can go swimming, go for a long walk or visit the exhibition.
   Not: You can swimming, go for a long walk or visit the exhibition.
 Modal verbs can only be used alone when the main verb
is clearly understood:

 A: She could take the bus.

 B: Yeah, that’s true. She could. (She could take the bus)

 A: He may be wrong, you know.

 B: Yes, he may. (Yes, he may be wrong.)
 Negative (−) forms

Warning:
 
 Negatives are formed by adding ‘not’ after the modal
verbs. We don’t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with modal
verbs:

 We can’t hear very well at the back.

 Not: We don’t can hear very well …
 Question (?) forms
 Warning:
 The subject and the modal verb change position to form questions. We don’t
use do/does/did:

 Could you help me?

 Not: Do you could help me?

 Will it be a problem?
 Not: Does it will be a problem?

 Why can’t you come too?

   Not: Why don’t you can come too?
 We use modal verbs in question tags:

 You can’t live like that, can you?

 It could be any of those things, couldn’t it?

 Meanings of modal verbs
 The main function of modal verbs is to allow the speaker
or writer to express their opinion of, or their attitude to, a
proposition. These attitudes can cover a wide range of
possibilities including obligation, asking for and giving
permission, disapproval, advising, logical deduction,
ability, possibility, necessity, absence of necessity and so
on. The problem with each modal verb is that it can have
more than one meaning and the interpretation of a
particular modal will depend heavily on the context in
which it is being used. The following examples should
help to illustrate this point.
 It might take more than a week. (possibility)
 You might have told me about it! (showing disapproval)
 He must take his medicine three times a day. (obligation)
 He must be French. (logical deduction)
 I can't lift that suitcase by myself. (ability)
 That can't be the right answer. (logical deduction)
 May I look at the questions now? (asking for permission)
 They say it may snow tomorrow. (possibility)
 You probably also noticed from the
examples that notions like permission
 and possibility can be expressed using
different modal verbs - this, of course, only
serves to complicate matters further since
one modal verb can have more than one
meaning, and one meaning can be
expressed by more than one modal verb.
 The main use of modals
 Modals are mainly used when you want to
indicate your attitude towards what you
are saying, or when you are concerned
about the effect of what you are saying on
the person you are speaking or writing to.
 Attitude to Information
 When you are giving information, you
sometimes use modals to indicate how
certain you are that what you are saying is
true or correct.
 For example, if you say ‘Mr. Wilkins is the oldest person
in the village’, you’re giving a definite statement of fact. If
you say ‘Mr. Wilkins must be the oldest person in the
village’, the modal ‘must’ indicates that you think Mr.
Wilkins is the oldest person, because you can’t think of
anyone in the village who is older than Mr. Wilkins. If you
say ‘Mr. Wilkins might be the oldest person in the
village’, the modal ‘might’ indicates that you think it is
possible that Mr. Wilkins is the oldest person, because
he is very old.
 Attitude to Intentions
 You can use modals to indicate your attitude towards the
things you intend to do, or intend not to do. For example,
if you say ‘I won’t go without Simon’, you are expressing
strong unwillingness to do something. If you say I can’t
go without Simon’, you are expressing unwillingness, but
at the same time you are indicating that there is a special
reason for your unwillingness. If you say ‘I couldn’t go
without Simon, you are indicating that you are unwilling
to go without Simon, because to do so would be unfair or
morally wrong.
 Attitude to People
 When you use language, you are affecting and
responding to a particular person or audience.
Modals are often used to produce a particular
effect, and the modal you choose depends on
several factors, such as the relationship you
have with the listener, the formality or informality
of the situation, and the importance of what you
are saying
 For example, it would normally be rude to
say to a stranger ‘Open the door’, although
you might say it in an emergency, or you
might say it to a close friend or a child.
Normally, you would say to a stranger ‘Will
you open the door?, ‘Would you open the
door?’, or ‘Could you open the door?’,
depending on how polite you want to be.
 Past time with modals
 Pure modals do not change to show tense. Most of these modals do
in fact have either present or future reference, but sometimes we
need to refer back to the past. With the semi-modals there is little
problem, but how can we do this for pure modal verbs? You may
have picked up from some of the previous examples that one way to
do this is to insert have immediately after the pure modal. But this is
not always the case since can has its own past tense could when it
refers to general ability.  
 Some examples should help:
 I can speak German.
 I could speak German when I was seven years old.
 You should see this film. You should have seen this film.
 Indonesia must be hot. Indonesia must have been hot.
 He could find his wallet. He could have found his wallet.

 Notice that in the third pair of sentences the meaning of must  is

logical deduction not obligation. If we want to use must for obligation
then the past tense is had to.
 She must visit her mother.
 She had to visit her mother.
 Uses of Can and Could
 The modal auxiliary can is used
 to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or
knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
 to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted
to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is
less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use
of can in this context.)
 to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think
there's a profit in it.
 Possibility
 We use the modal CAN to make general statements about what is
possible:
 It can be very cold in winter. (= it is sometimes very cold in winter)
 You can easily lose your way in the dark.
 We use COULD as the past tense of CAN:
 It could be very cold in winter. (= sometimes it was very cold in
winter.)
 You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way
in the dark)
 Impossibility

 We use the negative Can’t or Cannot to show that something is

impossible:

 That can’t be true. You cannot be serious.

 We us Couldn’t / Could not to talk about the past:

 We knew it could not be true.

 He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
 Cat’s can’t swim (impossibility – negative only)
 Ability

 We use Can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:

 She can speak several languages.

 He can swim like a fish.
 They can’t dance very well.

 We use Can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time

in the present or future:
 You can make a lot of money if you are lucky. Help. I can’t breathe.
 They can run but they can’t hide.
 Permission

 We use Can to ask for permission to do something:

 Can I ask a question, please? Can we go home now?

 Could is more formal and polite than Can:

 Could I ask a question, please? Could we go home now?

 You can use my car tomorrow. (informal permission)

 We use Can to give permission:

You can go home now if you like.

You can borrow my pen if you like.

 We use Can to say that someone has permission to do

something:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
 Requests:

 We use could you as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do

something:

 Could you take a message please?

 Could I have my bill please?

 Can is less polite:

 Can you take a message please?
 Can I borrow your book? (informal polite request)
 Offers and invitations:

 We use can I … to make offers:

 Can I help you? Can I do that for you?

 We sometimes say I can … or I could … to make an offer:

 I can do that for you if you like.

 I can give you a lift to the station.
 The modal auxiliary could is used
 to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
 to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
 to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around
talking.
 to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
 In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply
willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
 We use Could to show that something is possible in the future, but
not certain:

 If we don’t hurry, we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)

 We use Could have to show that something is /was possible now or

at some time in the past:

 It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now.

 They could have arrived hours ago.

 Ability: can, could, be able

• Can (present or future) and could (past) refer to a general ability to do

something. Can is also used to refer to an ability to do something specific at a
time in the future:

She can sing really well. I can come and see you next week.
I can't swim so I won't come to the pool with you. He could read when he was four.
I couldn't understand the language when I first came here.
• Can and could refer to the ability to do something, but not to the doing of it.

•We use can or be able to talk about ability:

Will you be able to/Can you come on Saturday?

My parents live quite a distance away so we're not able to/can't see them very
often.
He had a motorbike accident at the age of eighteen and after that he wasn't
able to/couldn't walk.

We use be able to talk about ability + achievement of the action:

Jan gave me a lift home so I was able to stay at the party till late. We got lost but
we were able to find our way home again with the map.
• We use will be able and not can to talk about skills that will be acquired in
the future:
I'll be able to drive by next summer so we can hire a car.
Will you be able to read textbooks in German when you've finished this
course?

• We use can + be + adjective or noun to talk about possibility:

The sea can be quite warm in September/The sea is sometimes quite warm in
September.
She can be very charming when she wants to be.

• We use be able for different grammatical forms that are not possible with can:
I like being able to work at home.
We'd like to be able to help you but we can't.
I've been able to work much faster since I got that new computer.

• We use can, could and could have in conditional sentences. We also use them
in sentences with an implied condition:
/ can help you if you want me to.
I could do it if I had the time.
You could do that job easily, (if you had that job)
I couldn't have done it if I hadn't had your help.
Practice

* Complete the sentences with the correct form of can, could or be able. If it is
possible to use can/could or be able, use can/could.

1 He is very fit for his age. He _______ (run) really fast.

2 He………………. (not climb) up to the top: he was too scared.
3 If they hadn't phoned for an ambulance, he ................................................... (die).
4 I love ………………………… (spend) all morning in bed at the weekends.
5 We ……………………. (go) to that concert tomorrow if the tickets haven't sold out.
6 I think you should go in the spring: it …………………………… (be) very crowded
there in the summer.
Certainty, possibility, deduction: can, could, may, might, must,
will, should, ought to

• To talk about something that it is possible to do at any time, use can or may.
With this use, can and may are often followed by the passive infinitive:

Suitcases can/may be left in the left luggage office at the station.

Stamps can/may be bought at most shops which sell cards.

• To talk about a future possibility, use may or might. We can also use could;
could refers to a theoretical possibility:

The parcel may/might arrive tomorrow.

I may/might see you next week.
You could go by train. (It is possible to take a train there if you wanted to do
that.)

• To talk about a present or future certainty, use will + simple or continuous

infinitive:
You can phone Sally: she'll be at home now. I'll be there by 9 o'clock.
The meeting will start at 7.30. We should go now: they'll be waiting for us.
I'll be standing on the platform when you arrive.
• To talk about the possibility in the present, use may, might or could + simple
infinitive (usually the verb to be) or continuous infinitive:

'Where's Tony?' T don't know. He may be outside.'

'Whose is this?' 'It could be Emma's.'
Alison's not in the office today so she may be working at home.
I won't phone Jennifer now because she might be having a rest.

• To talk about possibility in the past, use may, might or could + perfect
infinitive (simple or continuous):

It's 8.30 so she may have left by now.

I don't know why they're so late. I suppose they could have got lost.
Sue wasn't at the party last night. She might have been feeling too tired to
come.

• To make a deduction about something in the present, use must (positive

deduction) or can't (negative deduction) + simple infinitive (usually the verb
to be) or continuous infinitive:

Jane's not at home so she must be on her way here. The office is closed now so he
can't be there. Barbara's back at work now so she must be feeling better. He can't be
driving here: he hasn't got a car.
• To make a deduction about something in the past, use must or can't (or
couldn't) + perfect infinitive (simple or continuous):

It's very wet outside so it must have rained in the night.

He can't have forgotten about the meeting: he talked to me about it only this
morning.
You must have been talking on the phone for a long time last night: I phoned
four times and it was engaged.
Eddie couldn't have done that robbery: he was with me the whole weekend.

• We can use should or ought to + present infinitive to make assumptions

about the present or the future and should or ought to + perfect infinitive to
make assumptions about the past. We use should more frequently than
ought to:

The train got in half an hour ago so they should be here soon.
The sun's been shining all day so the sea should be quite warm now.
The weather's lovely there at this time of year so they should be having a nice
holiday.
Let's go and see Cathy: she ought to have finished working by now.
Practice
* Complete the sentences with can, could, may, might, will, should, ought to or must and
an infinitive in the appropriate form.

1.Kerry's rather late. She _______(miss) the train.

2.Travelers'' cheques ___________(be exchanged) at most banks.
3. They're not answering the phone so they …………………………………. (be) out.
4. Don't phone her now. It …………………………….. (be) the middle of the night in
Australia.
5. They ………………………………. (not move) house yet. I saw them in town this
morning.
6. I haven't seen Molly this week. I think she …………………………… (visit) her
parents but I'm not sure.
7. Her exam results are coming out soon. She worked very hard so she ………………..
(do) well.
 Modals to express obligation: SHOULD, OUGHT TO
 Should and ought to + infinitive express obligation and
duty. Should is used when we offer a subjective opinion,
while ought to has a more general and more objective
meaning:

 I think you should leave.

 We ought to protect the environment.

 Should and ought to + perfect infinitive
express that an action which was
desirable was not performed:

 You should have consulted a doctor.

 You ought to have told me earlier. Why
didn't you tell me?
 Uses of Shall and Will and Should

 In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first

person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be
used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first
person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as
in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in
second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise
about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time."
This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used
far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often
obscured by the contraction’ll, which is the same for both verbs.
 In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything
other than polite questions (suggesting an element of
permission) in the first-person:
 "Shall we go now?"
 "Shall I call a doctor for you?"
 (In the second sentence, many writers would
use should instead, although should is somewhat more
tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future
tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
 Shall I invite them too? (ask another person’s opinion –
only used with I or We)
 Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or
legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.)
to express obligation, even with third-person and
second-person constructions:
 The board of directors shall be responsible for
payment to stockholders.
 The college president shall report financial
shortfalls to the executive director each
semester."
 Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used,
however, to mean "ought to" as in
 You really shouldn't do that.
 If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
 In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to
hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of
liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions
of opinion such as
 I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
 I should have thought so.
 I should study tonight. (advisability)
 He should be at school. (80% certainty)
 Can versus May
 Whether the auxiliary verb can can be
used to express permission or not — "Can
I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if
you can, but you may."] — depends on the
level of formality of your text or situation.
 Uses of May and Might
 Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might.
When used in the context of granting or seeking
permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably
more tentative than may.
 May I leave class early?
 If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?

 May I borrow your book? (Polite request)

 You may leave the room. (formal permission)

 In the context of expressing
possibility, may and might are interchangeable
present and future forms and might + have +
past participle is the past form:
 She might be my advisor next semester.
 She may be my advisor next semester.
 She might have advised me not to take biology.
 May be it will rain this evening.
(Possibility/Uncertainty about the future)
 Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication
of might that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For
instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In
his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster
could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover
that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the
pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation
that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified
after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this
painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since
the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
 Uses of Will and Would
 In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but
there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very
frequently used for will.
 Will can be used to express willingness: I'll wash the dishes if you
dry.
 We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
 It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
 I'll do my exercises later on.
 and prediction: specific: The meeting will be over soon.
 timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
 habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
 Would can also be used to express willingness:
 Would you please take off your hat?
 It can also express insistence (with a strong stress on the word "would"):
 Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
 and characteristic activity:
 customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
 typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
 In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
 My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
 Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
 I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
 I would like to learn the language free. (to express what you want)
 I would rather walk than drive. (to indicate preference)
 I would rather you stayed at home tonight.
 Would you open the door please? (polite request)
 Modals to express obligation: MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO
 Must refers to obligations which come from the speaker and may be
directed at the speaker or the listener:

 I really must give up smoking. (directed at the speaker)

 You must keep this secret. (directed at the listener)
 
 Have to expresses external obligations, which come from outside of
the speaker. These may be rules and regulations imposed by an
external authority:
 I have to get to work by 9 every day.
 Do you have to wear a uniform at your school?
 Police Officer: ‘You must wear a seatbelt.
 (legal obligation/official)

 The teacher is absent. She must be sick

 (logical conclusion)
 Absence of obligation is expressed with the negative
form of have to, not with mustn't. Mustn't is used to
express that it is necessary not to do something:
 I don't have to get up early tomorrow. It's a holiday.
(I can get up late.)
 You mustn't tell anyone. It's a secret. (Don't tell anyone.)
 Have got to has the same meaning as have to, but it is more
common in informal, spoken language.
 I must go to class today (strong necessity)
 I had to go to class yesterday (necessity)
 You must not open the door. (prohibition)
 She isn’t in the class. She must be sick. (95% certainty)
 Must and will have to can be used to refer to future
obligations:
 You must be home by 10 o'clock.
 I'll have to pay my bills next week

 Must has no past form. Instead, we use ‘had to’ to

express past obligations:
  When I was at primary school, I had to wear a uniform.
 We had to start all over again.
 Have to
 I have to go to class today. (necessity)
 I had to go to class yesterday. (past)
 I don’t have to go to class today. (lack of necessity)
 I didn’t have to go to class yesterday. (past)
 Have got to (necessity)
 I have got to go to class today. (informal spoken English)
 Had better (strongly advised)
 You had better be on time.
 You had better study before the test. (warning)
 The forms of semi-modals
 You will notice that this type of modal is made up of two
or more separate words, the last one invariably being to.
They are all modal in meaning but not in form as they
behave differently in a sentence from the pure modals. It
is perhaps best to think of the semi-modals in the form
with the to infinitive rather than thinking of them as
modals that need to + base form. We need to look at the
form of each individual semi-modal separately.
 Semi-modal verbs

 The semi-modal verbs (or marginal

modals) are: dare, need, used to and
ought to. They behave similarly to modal
verbs but also share some characteristics
with main verbs:
 How dare she criticize us? (as a modal verb, the interrogative
formed without do)
 He didn't dare to look back. (as a main verb, followed by a to-
infinitive and the negative formed with do)
 Need you make so much noise? (as a modal verb, the interrogative
formed without do)
 You needn't have been so rude. (as a modal verb, the perfect
infinitive used to refer to past time)
 Do you need to use the hairdryer? (as a main verb, followed by a to-
infinitive and the interrogative formed with do)
 They used to live by the sea. (unlike a modal verb, followed by a to-
infinitive)
 You ought to know that by now.(unlike modal verb, followed by a to-infinitive
 Other modal expressions
Besides modal verbs and semi-modal verbs, there are
other expressions which can express modal meanings.
Some of these are formed with be:
 be able to, be allowed to, be going to, be supposed to
 Other expressions that carry modal meanings are: be to,
had better, have (got) to, would rather.
 Be able to
 We use this semi-modal to express possibility or the ability to do something,
but unlike the pure modals, be able to has a full range of tenses and also
needs to inflect to show agreement with its subject. For example:
 He is able to offer you the best price possible.
 We were able to get in to see the film.
 They haven't been able to find the missing document.
 So, you aren't able to help.
 Notice that the negative is carried either by the be element or the auxiliary
verb that is closest to the subject of the sentence. It can also be
accompanied by any of the pure modals:
 I will be able to see you after lunch.
 They might not be able to put us up for the night.
 Has/have (got) to
 This is used to express necessity or obligation to do something and shares
some of the features of be able to discussed above. The have element of
the form has to change to agree with its subject. Although it is normally used
in the present tense, it also has its own past (had to) and can be used with
pure modals to show the future or the attitude of the speaker:
 They have to be more punctual.
 He has to take responsibility for the accident.
 I had to help my father repair his car.
 We will have to put this off until tomorrow.
 You shouldn't have to suffer in silence.
 You don't have to come if you don't want to. He didn't have to do all the shopping.
 From these few examples it should be clear that the negative not again
attaches itself to the auxiliary verb (modal or main) that comes immediately
after the subject of the sentence.
 Ought to
 It is usually claimed that the meaning of ought to is the same
as should whether it refers to giving advice or making a logical deduction.
So, to most native speakers the following sentences with ought
to and should feel the same:
 You ought to see a doctor. You should see a doctor.
 They ought to have got back home by now.
 They should have got back home by now.
 In practice, most speakers tend to prefer should for negatives and questions
because the ought to and oughtn't ... to forms can sound rather clumsy and
awkward.
 Ought you to be doing that?
 They oughtn't to (ought not to) do that. Oughtn't we to leave now?
 She ought to be at school. (80% certainty)
 Core modal verbs have only one form. They have no to-infinitive
form, -ing form, past form or -ed form. We have to reword what we
want to say by using other expressions:

 I’d love to be able to see the Taj Mahal one day.

 
 Not: I’d love to can see the Taj Mahal one day.
 
 They had to sell their house.
 
 Not: They musted sell their house.
 Dare, need, ought to and used to (semi-modal verbs)

 Dare, need, ought to and used to are often called semi-

modal because in some ways they are formed like modal
verbs and in some ways they are like other main verbs.

 Like modal verbs, ought to and used to do not change

form for person. Needn’t and daren’t do not have a third
person -s in the present:
 Like modal verbs, ought to and used to do not change
form for person. Needn’t and daren’t do not have a third
person -s in the present:

   It used to be so easy.
 It ought to be easy now.
 She needn’t worry.
 John daren’t tell Ruth about the accident.
 Like main verbs, the negative form of need, dare and used to is
made by using do. But it can also be made without using do (like
modal verbs).
 Compare
 You don’t need to dress smartly.
  You needn’t dress smartly.
 We don’t dare (to) tell him.
   We daren’t tell him.

 The negative form of ought to is not made with do:

 We oughtn’t to spend so much money.
 Not: We don’t ought to spend so much money.
 Like main verbs, the question form for
need, dare and used to is made by using
do:
 Does she need to get a camera before she
goes away?
 Did you use to play football when you
were a child?
 The semi-modal NEED
 Need can behave either as a modal verb or as a main verb:
  As a modal verb, need is most typically used in negative sentences
or in affirmative sentences with a negative meaning. It expresses
absence of obligation or necessity, and it is followed by a bare
infinitive:
   You needn't worry about that.
 No one need be surprised at what happened.
 You need only just ask.
 I doubt whether I need help you.
   Need as a modal verb also occurs in interrogative sentences, but
this use is much more formal: Need you make so much noise?
 Need as a main verb is followed by a to-infinitive and
expresses that something is necessary. It can be used in
affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences:
  
 Do you have a minute? I need to talk to you about
something.
 I don't need to be told that I should lose weight.
 Do you need to use the hairdryer?
 If you want good results, you will need to work harder.
 The past tense of the main verb need to is needed to:

 I needed to have my hair cut.

 Why did they need to change the lock?
  
 The negative form didn't need + to-infinitive normally refers to
actions which were unnecessary and were not performed:
 
 We didn't need to buy any milk. We had plenty at home.
(we didn't have to buy any milk, and we didn't buy any)
 Need as a modal does not have a past
tense form. Needn't + perfect bare
infinitive (have + past participle), however,
is used for actions which were performed
but were unnecessary:
 We needn't have bought any milk. We still
have plenty at home. (we bought some
milk, but it wasn't necessary)
 need is a special verb since as an auxiliary
it is almost always negative and it is also a
lexical verb as in sentences like he needs
to speak to you now, while it acts as a
modal verb in sentences such as you
needn't come to work tomorrow where it
has the same meaning as don't have to.
 The semi-modal DARE
 Dare means "have the courage to do something" and
can behave either as a modal verb or as a main verb:

 As a modal verb, dare is used in negative and

interrogative sentences; it is followed by a bare infinitive:

 I daren't think how many victims there are.

 How dare she criticize us?
 
 Dare as a main verb can be followed by a bare infinitive
or a to-infinitive:
   Do you dare (to) tell him what happened to his bike?
 Who dares (to) argue with me?
 He didn't dare (to) look back.
 No one would have dared (to) think about it.

 But in the expression Don't you dare..., it is always

followed by a bare infinitive:
 Don't you dare interrupt me!
 To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express
probability and possibility in the past.
 As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you
are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate
modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already."
"Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted
already."
 As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a
past participle to express how certain you are that something did not
happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not
have been there at the time of the crime."
 To ask about possibility or probability in
the past, a modal is combined with the
subject + have + past participle: "Could
Clinton have known about the gifts?"
 For short answers, a modal is combined
with have: "Did Clinton know about this?"
"I don't know. He may have." "The
evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
 To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to
express a logical inference:
 It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded
by now.
 He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over
seven feet tall!
 Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an
auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
 I have to have a car like that!
 She has to pay her own tuition at college.
 He has to have been the first student to try that.
 Uses of Used to
 The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action
that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action
no longer customarily takes place:
 We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
 The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the
"-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We used to
take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are
exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another
auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the
"-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
 Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
 It didn't use to be that way.
 Used to can also be used to convey the sense of
being accustomed to or familiar with something:
 The tire factory down the road really stinks, but
we're used to it by now.
 I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
 Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it
has no place in formal or academic text.
 Supposed to
 Be supposed is used to indicate expectation.
 We are supposed to meet them here. (present)
 We were supposed to meet here. (past)
 We are supposed turn our cell phones off in movie
theaters. (Reporting a rule)
 Be to
 It is used to show strong expectation.
 We are to meet them her.
 We were to meet them here.
 Exercise 1: Can, Could, Be able to
 Fill in the correct form of can, could or be able to as in the examples
 Ben ___________ help his little brother with his homework
yesterday.
 ______ I call you later tonight?
 _______ Tony run long distances when he was a boy?
 ______ you please call a tow truck for me? My car broke down.
(polite)
 The students _______ to buy their textbooks today. The bookstore is
all out of them.
 ______ you teach me how to fix my computer? You’re so good at it.
 ______ you ______ reach the customer if you call him at 4:00 his
time?
 Answers 1:

 Could not, Can, Could, Could, aren’t able,

Can, Will/be able to
 Exercises 2: May / Might
 Fill in the correct form of may or might as in the example

 ________ I sit here?

 They ______ finish the project on time. The main engineer is ill.
 You _____ want to stop by the museum gift shop on your way out.
 _____ I have your autograph?
 He _______ visit the Louvre. He’s in Paris anyway.
 You ______ park your car here. It’s reserved for guests of the hotel
only.
 Answers 2:
 
 May, might not, might, May, may as well,
may not
 Exercise 3: Should, Shouldn’t, Ought To
 Fill in should, shouldn’t or ought in the following sentences as in the
example.
  
 He ______ encourage such bad behavior.
 You _____ get your teeth cleaned at least once a year.
 The house ______ be ready to move into by next month. It’s almost
finished.
 Ron ________ to improve his attitude. If he doesn’t, he might get
fired.
 ________ I get your jacket? It’s cold in here.
 You ________ put your feet on the table. It’s not polite.
 Answers 3:
 
 Shouldn’t, Should, should, ought, shall,
shouldn’t
 Exercise 4: Must, Have to, Need to, Don’t Have to, Needn’t
 Fill in the blanks with one of these modals:
 must, must not, have to, has to, don’t have to, doesn’t have to, needn’t as in the
examples.
 There may be more than one correct answer.
  Shira __________ drive to the airport. She’s going by taxi.
 You _______ speak politely to the customers.
 You ______ tell Anna about the party tomorrow night. It’s a surprise! (must not, need
to, doesn’t have to)
 Tina _______ register for her classes on Monday, otherwise she won’t get a place in
them. (doesn’t have to, mustn’t, has to)
 You ________ send that fax. I’ve already sent it. (must, will have to, don’t have to)
 A dog ______ get special training in order to be a guide dog. (must, need to, don’t
have to)
 Jeremy _______ get up early tomorrow. His class was cancelled. (mustn’t, doesn’t
have to, don’t need to)
 Answers 4:
 
 doesn’t have to must, must not, has to,
don’t have to, must, doesn’t have to
 Exercises 5: will, would
 Fill in the blanks with one of the following words: will, won’t, would,
wouldn’t.
  
 _____ you please help me lift this box?
 I ______ like to order the onion soup please.
 The manager _______ be pleased to hear that a customer slipped
on the wet floor.
 _______ it be okay if I slept here tonight?
 When Igor lived in Russia, he ________ call his mother as often as
he does now.
 I can assure you sir, the order ______ be shipped out tonight.
 Answers 5:
 
 Will, Would, won’t, would, wouldn’t, will
 Exercise 6 – All Modals
 Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the
following modals:
 can, could, be able to, may, might, shall, should,
must, have to, don’t have to, need to
 - You may have to make the modals negative
according to the context of the sentence.
 - There may be more than one possibility.
 He _______ take his car to be serviced. The brakes are squeaking.
 ________ you please save me a seat at the dinner event.
 If you are sick, you ________ go to work. You’ll infect everyone there.
 Drivers _______ stop at red lights.
 You _______ finish the proposal today. You can finish it tomorrow.
 She ______ hear much better with her new hearing aids.
 ______ I order us a bottle of wine?
 Sam ______ pick his daughter up from school. She’s taking the bus home.
 You _____________ smoke here. It’s a smoke-free building.
 You ________ eat so many sweets. They are bad for you.
 _________ you mind walking a little faster? We’re going to be late.
 I’m sorry. I _______ help you. I don’t know how to do it.
 Answers 6:

 Has to, would, shouldn’t, must, don’t have

to, can, shall, needn’t, mustn’t, shouldn’t,
would, can’t