Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Codes
Outcomes of Language Contact
• 90 Alaskan indigenous
2 being acquired by children.
• 90 Australia Aboriginal
20 being used by all age groups.
Pidgins Creoles
• Pidgin
• Limited functions of use
• Adjunct language (no one speaks only a pidgin)
• Linguistically simplified
• Develop their own rules and norms of usage
Examples
• West African Pidgin English
• Chinook Jargon, Native American, British, & French traders in the Pacific Northwest,
19th c.
• Solomon Island Pidgin, Solomon Islands
• Creole
• Languages developed from pidgins
• First language of some members of a speech community
• Used for a wide range of functions
Examples
• Jamaican Creole (also called patois)
• Krio (Sierra Leone, Africa)
• Gullah (South Carolina & Georgia)
Creole Languages (VARIATIONS )
AFRO-SEMINOLE CREOLE USA FERNANDO PO CREOLE ENGLISH Equatorial Guinea
AMAPA CREOLE Brazil FRENCH GUIANESE CREOLE FRENCH French Guiana
ANGOLAR São Tomé e Príncipe GUYANESE CREOLE ENGLISH Guyana
ARABIC, BABALIA CREOLE Chad HAITIAN CREOLE FRENCH Haiti
ARABIC, SUDANESE CREOLE Sudan HAWAII CREOLE ENGLISH USA
AUKAN [DJK] Suriname INDO-PORTUGUESE Sri Lanka
BAHAMAS CREOLE ENGLISH Bahamas INDONESIAN, PERANAKAN Indonesia
BAJAN [BJS] Barbados KARIPUNA CREOLE FRENCH Brazil
BAY ISLANDS CREOLE ENGLISH Honduras KITUBA Democratic Republic of Congo
BERBICE CREOLE DUTCH Guyana KORLAI CREOLE PORTUGUESE India
BETAWI Indonesia (Java and Bali) KRIO Sierra Leone
BISLAMA Vanuatu KRIOL Australia
CAFUNDO CREOLE Brazil KWINTI Suriname
CHAVACANO Philippines LEEWARD CARIBBEAN CREOLE ENGLISH Antigua
CRIOULO, UPPER GUINEA Guinea-Bissau LESSER ANTILLEAN CREOLE FRENCH St. Lucia
CUTCHI-SWAHILI Kenya LOUISIANA CREOLE FRENCH USA
DUTCH CREOLE U.S. Virgin Islands and so on...
FA D'AMBU Equatorial Guinea
http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp
Sources of Linguistic Features
English
I shot the burglar.
I shot ‘im.
*I shot’im the burglar.
Example, continued
luk ‘look’
luk-im ‘see something
sut ‘shoot’
sut-im ‘shoot something’
fana ‘shoot’
fana-si ‘shoot something’
Can you identify the superstrate of these Creoles?
1. mo pe aste sa banan. I am buying the banana.
French: Seychelles Creole
de bin alde luk dat big tri. They always looked for a big tree.
English: Roper River Creole
• Fort Creole: developed at fortified posts along the west African coast,
where European forces held slaves until the arrival of the next ship.
Guinea Coast Creole English
• Fanakalo
• spoken in parts of South Africa
• vocabulary from Zulu, and some from English & Afrikaans)
• stable pidgin, shows no signs of creolizing
4. War
Reduced vocabularies
Polysemy
Circumlocution
Lexicon
Compounding
Grammatical Structure
“Often complete lack of inflection in nouns,
pronouns, verbs, and adejectives”
Wardhaugh 67
3. Linguistic universals
Classifying Pidgins: Grammatical
Complexity
Less Complex
• Pre-pidgin (or jargon)
• Stable Pidgin
Sociolinguistics
Multilingualism among the Tukano is the norm, they cannot readily tell an outsider just
how many languages they speak or how well they speak them.
normal for people to know several
languages and to choose the most
appropriate one for each occasion.
There is also a genuine interest in
‘language learning’ among the
Siane. Salisbury (1962) tells of a
situation where a group of laborers
returned from working on the coast
where they had learned pidgin
English (Tok Pisin) and almost
immediately a village school was
established so that the rest of the
•India
A multilingual situation has been reported by Gumperz and Wilson (1971) of
Kupwar, a village of 3,000 inhabitants in Maharashtra in India. Four languages
are spoken: two Indo-European language, Marathi and Urdu, and two non-Indo-
European languages: Kannada and Telegu. Language use is determined by the
caste system:
The highest caste, Jains, speak Kannada
The untouchables speak Marathi
The small population of rope-markers speak Telugu
The Muslims speak Urdu
Marathi dominates inter-group communication.
Bilingualism and even tri-lingualism is normal, especially among men. A
consequence of this situation has been some convergence of languages with
regard to syntax. As a result the languages have become to differ more and more
in their vocabularies alone. (Wardhaugh 1998:99)
The Gastarbeiter impact
In Europe bilingualism has resulted from a longstanding co-existence of
languages, as in Belgium, or from more recent changes in social
structure, such caused by the Gastarbeiter or guest worker groups in
Europe. Guest workers and their dependents now constitute a population
of 24 million in northern Europe. They originate from Turkey, Greece,
Italy, Japan, the new Balkan states and Arabic-speaking countries. In the
early 1990s it was estimated that some 750,000 foreign students
attended German schools and about 1 million attended French schools.
Such populations need to be catered for in terms of language
programmes for maintaining the children’s languages, translation
services, interpreting services etc. all of which have an impact on the
multilingual nature of society.
•Fluidity
An important feature of most multilingual societies is their fluidity. The
relationships between the languages are always changing (with the
exception perhaps of Paraguay). In some areas the level of bilingualism
is increasing which suggests that the languages are becoming more
equal, in others, second and third generation immigrants are becoming
more monolingual as in the USA and in Australia. Several scenarios
might exist:
language maintenance whereby one language survives despite powerful
neighbours
language shift whereby speakers of a language may have assimilated to
the dominant culture and its language
Extensive vocabulary borrowing by one of the languages
The emergence of a new ‘hybrid’, eg creoles and pidgins
Language death
Three-Circle
Model of World
Englishes
The Inner Circle
• English as dominant language
• “Standard Englishes”
African territories
(Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ambia) 300 million
Indian subcontinent
(India, Paistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka) 1.2 billion
Pacific rim
(Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines) 80 million
The Expanding Circle
• English of those for whom the language serves no purpose within
their own countries.
• Historically, learned English to use with native speakers in the U.S.
and UK. Now, more likely to use it for communication with other
non-native speakers.
• Number is more difficult to assess since it depends on the level of
competence
1. Mother-tongue
• USA, Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (but compare to
Spanish in 20 countries)
• Linguistic complacency
• Are monolingual English speakers disadvantaged?
• Should everyone speak at least two languages?
• Language death
• Access to power
• English spoken by world elite.
• Internet
How English Became a Global Language
Why English?
• It is more beautiful/logical?
• It has “less grammar”?
• What about Latin, Greek, Arabic?
• It is easier to learn?
• However, children learn “more complex” languages at the same
rate as children learning English
• It is willing to borrow words?
In the 1600s, the King James Bible traveled farther and faster than the
spoken word could. The Bible was in print when the British Empire was
being built. From 1611, voyages to America, to India through the East
India Company, and later to South Africa.
©CORBIS BK002387
4. Economic significance
Japanese pop
group performs
exclusively in English.