Electric Drives & Motor Control

Modern Electric Drives

feedback
 Modern Electrical Drive Systems

Typical Modern Electric Drive Systems

Power Electronic Converters Electric Motor

Electric Energy Electric Energy Electric Mechanical
- Unregulated - - Regulated - Energy Energy

POWER IN
Power
Electronic Motor Load
Converters

feedback

Reference
Controller
 Modern Electrical Drive Systems
Example on VSD application

Electric motor consumes more than half of electrical energy in the US

Fixed speed Variable speed

Improvements in energy utilization in electric motors give large impact to the

overall energy consumption

HOW ?
Replacing fixed speed drives with variable speed drives

Using the high efficiency motors

Improves the existing power converter–based drive systems

 Modern Variable Speed System
A modern variable speed system has components:
1. Electric Motor
2. Power Converter
- Rectifiers
- Choppers
- Inverters
- Cycloconverters
Variable Speed Drives
 Modeling and Control of Electrical Drives

• Control the torque, speed or position

• Cascade control structure

Example of current control in cascade control structure

* *+ T* +
+

  
position speed current
controller controller controller converter Motor

kT



1/s
 Controllers
• Analog controller: Consisting of the traditional analog
devices and circuits.
– In the analog system, any change in either set point or
feedback is sensed immediately, and the amplifiers adjust
their output accordingly (no delay).
• Digital controller: Using a digital circuit. In most cases,
this circuit is a computer, microprocessor,
microcontroller, and digital signal processor.
– In the digital control system, any change in either set point or
feedback is not sensed immediately (delay exists).
AC to DC Converters
(Rectifiers)
Outline
3.1 Single-phase controlled rectifier
3.2 Three-phase controlled rectifier
3.3 Effect of transformer leakage inductance on
rectifier circuits
3.4 Capacitor-filtered uncontrolled rectifier
3.5 Harmonics and power factor of rectifier circuits
3.6 High power controlled rectifier
3.7 Inverter mode operation of rectifier circuit
3.8 Realization of phase-control in rectifier circuits

10
3.1 Single-phase controlled
(controllable) rectifier
3.1.1 Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier

3.1.2 Single-phase bridge fully-controlled rectifier

3.1.3 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier

3.1.4 Single-phase bridge half-controlled rectifier

11
3.1.1 Single-phase half-wave
controlled rectifier
u2
Resistive load
b)
0  t1  2 t
ug
V T c)
T 0 t
id ud
uVT
u1 u2 ud R d)
0  t


uVT

e)
a) 0 t

1  2U 2 1  cos 
Ud 
2  2U 2 sin td (t ) 
2
(1  cos  )  0.45U 2
2
(3-1)

Half-wave, single-pulse
Triggering delay angle, delay angle, firing angle
12
3.1.1 Single-phase half-wave
controlled rectifier
Inductive (resistor-inductor) load
u2

b)
VT id 0  t1  2 t
T ug

uVT c)
0 t
a) u1 u2 ud
ud
+ +
d)
0  t
id

e)
0  t
uVT

f)
0 t

13
Basic thought process of time-domain
analysis for power electronic circuits
The time-domain behavior of a power electronic
circuit is actually the combination of consecutive
transients of the different linear circuits when the
power semiconductor devices are in different states.
VT VT

L L
u2 u2
R R

b)
a)
did
L  Rid  2U 2 sin t (3-2)
dt
ωt =  ， id= 0
R
2U 2  (t  ) 2U 2
id   sin(   )e L
 sin(t   ) (3-3)
Z Z
14
Single-phase half-wave controlled
rectifier with freewheeling diode
u
Inductive load (L is large enough) 2

b)
T VT id
O  t1 t
ud
i VD
u VT
R L
c)
a) u 1 u2 ud O t
id
R Id
VDR d)
O t
iV T
  Id
I dVT  Id (3-5) e)
2 O -
+  t
  iV

D
I dVDR Id (3-6) R
2 f)
1    O t
I VT   I
2
d (t )  I d (3-7) u
2 2
d V T

g)
1 2    O t
I VDR 
2  I d2 d (t ) 
2
Id (3-8)

Maximum forward voltage, maximum reverse voltage

Disadvantages:
– Only single pulse in one line cycle
– DC component in the transformer current
15
3.1.2 Single-phase bridge
fully-controlled rectifier
u d(id )
Resistive load ud
id
b)
0    t

VT 1

VT 3
id
i2
T a uVT
1 ,4

u1 u2 ud R c)
0 t
VT2 b i2
d)
VT4 0 t
a)
For thyristor: maximum forward voltage, maximum reverse
voltage
Advantages:
– 2 pulses in one line cycle
– No DC component in the transformer current

16
3.1.2 Single-phase bridge fully-
controlled rectifier
Resistive load
Average output (rectified) voltage
1  2 2U 2 1  cos  1  cos 
U d   2U 2 sin td(t )   0.9U 2
   2 2
(3-9)
Average 2U 2 1  cos
U d 2 output 
current U 2 1  cos 
Id    0.9
R R 2 R 2
(3-10)
1 U 1  cos 
For
I dVT thyristor
 I d  0.45 2
2 R 2
1  2U 2 U 1  
I VT 
2  (
R
sin t ) 2 d (t )  2
2R 2
sin 2 
 (3-11)
(3-12)
For transformer
1  2U U2 1  
I  I2   sin t ) d (t )  sin 2 
2 2
(
  R R 2  (3-13)
17
3.1.2 Single-phase bridge
fully-controlled rectifier
Inductive load u 2

(L is large enough) O t
id u d

VT1

VT3
O t
i2 id Id
T a
L iV T
O Id
t

u u u d
1 ,4

O t
1 2 iV T Id
2 ,3
O t
Id
b R i2
O Id t
u
VT2

VT4
V T
1 ,4

O t

a) b )

1   2 2
Ud   2U 2 sin td(t )  U 2 cos  0.9U 2 cos  (3-15)
  
Commutation
Thyristor voltages and currents
Transformer current
18
D.C to D.C Converters
(Choppers)

19
 Power Electronic Interface
• Power Electronics is an enabling technology providing the
needed interface between the electrical source and electrical
load.

• The source and load often do differ in frequency, voltage

amplitudes and number of phases.
20
 Powering the information Technology
• Most of the consumer electronics equipment supplied from the
mains, internally needed very load dc voltages.

• Figure shows the distributed

architecture typically used in
computers.

• In which incoming voltage from

the utility is converted into dc
voltage (24V).

• This semi regulated voltage is

distributed within the computer
where on-board power supplies
convert this 24V into tightly
regulated lower voltage.
21
 Powering the information Technology
• Many devices such as cell phones operates from low battery
voltages.

• However, the electronic circuitry requires higher voltages.

• Thus necessitating a circuit to boost input dc to higher dc voltages

22
 Introduction to D.C to D.C Converters (Choppers)
• DC to DC converters are important in portable electronic
devices such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which
are supplied with power from batteries primarily.

• Such electronic devices often contain several sub-circuits,

each with its own voltage level requirement different from
that supplied by the battery or an external supply.

• They are also widely used in dc-motor drive applications.

• Often input to these converters is an unregulated dc voltage,

which is obtained by rectifying the line voltage.
 Introduction

Battery
DC
Unregulated
AC Line DC
Voltage Regulated
D.C to D.C
Uncontrolled Filter Load
Converter
Diode Rectifier DC DC
1-Phase or Unregulated
3-Phase Unregulated

vc

D.C to D.C Converter

System
 Efficiency & Power Losses
• High efficiency is essential in any power processing
application.

• The efficiency of a converter is

Pout

Pin
• The power lost in converter is

1
Ploss  Pin  Pout  Pout (  1)

 Efficiency & Power Losses
• The various conventional circuit elements are illustrated in
Following figure.

• The available circuit elements fall broadly into the classes of

resistive elements, capacitive elements, magnetic devices including
inductors and transformers, semiconductor devices operated in
the linear mode and semiconductor devices operated in the
switched mode.
 Types of dc-dc Converters

• Types of D.C to D.C converters

– AC Link Choppers

– Linear Converters

– Switch Mode

– Magnetic

– E.t.c
 AC Link Choppers
• First dc is converted to ac with the help of an inverter.

• After that, AC is stepped-up or stepped-down by a

transformer, which is then converted back to dc by a diode
rectifier.

• Ac link chopper is costly, bulky and less efficient as the

conversion is done in two stages.
 Simple dc-dc Converters
• Let us now construct a simple dc-dc converter. The
input voltage vg is 100 V. It is desired to supply 50 V
to an effective 5Ω load, such that the dc load
current is 10 A.
 Resistive dc-dc Converters
• Using Voltage divided rule.
 Linear dc-dc Converters
• Linear Mode dc-dc converter
Switch Mode dc-dc Converters
 Conclusion
• Capacitors and magnetic devices are important elements of
switching converters, because ideally they do not consume
power.

• It is the resistive element, as well as the linear-mode

semiconductor device, that is avoided.

• Semiconductor in switch mode however dissipate

comparatively low power in either states (ON and OFF).

• So capacitive and inductive elements, as well as switched-

mode semiconductor devices, are available for synthesis of
high-efficiency converters.
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• Switch-mode DC to DC converters convert one DC voltage
level to another, by storing the input energy temporarily and
then releasing that energy to the output at a different
voltage.

• This conversion method is more power efficient (often 75%

to 98%) than linear voltage regulation (which dissipates
unwanted power as heat).

• This efficiency is beneficial to increasing the running time of

battery operated devices. 
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• PWM or PFM regulates the output dc voltage.

• The power flow through these converters is only in one

direction thus their voltages and currents remain unipolar.
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• A Chopper is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch.
• It connects source to load and disconnects source from load
at very high speed.
• In this manner a chopped dc voltage is obtained from a
constant dc supply Vs is obtained.
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• During the period Ton, the chopper is on and load voltage Vo is
equal to source voltage Vs.

• During the period Toff, the chopper is off and load current io
flows through the freewheeling diode.
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• The load voltage is given by

• Thus the load voltage can be varied by varying the switching

duty ratio D.
 Control of D.C to D.C Converters
• Average value of output voltage Vo can be controlled by
opening and closing the semiconductor switch periodically.

• The control strategies for varying duty ratio D are

1. Constant frequency system

2. Variable frequency system

39
 Constant frequency system
• In this scheme Ton is varied but frequency is kept constant.
• Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse width. Therefore,
this scheme is called PWM scheme.
 Constant frequency system (PWM)
Vo (desired) +
Vcontrol

Comparator Switch
Vo (actual) - Control
Signal
Sawtooth Wave

vst

vcontrol

t t on Vcontrol
D 
Switch Ton
Ts Vst
Control
Toff
Signal

Ts
 Variable frequency system
• In this scheme Ton is kept constant but the frequency is
varied.
 Variable frequency system
• Or Toff is kept constant but the frequency is varied.
 Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
• Types of Switch Mode D.C to D.C Converters
– Step-Down (Buck) converter

– Step-up (Boost) converter

– Step Down/Up (Buck-Boost) converter

 Step-Down Converter (Buck Converter)
• As name implies a step-down converter produces a lower
average output voltage than the dc input voltage Vd.

• Its main application is in regulated dc power supplies and

dc-motor speed control.
Step-Down Converter (Buck Converter)
Step-Down Converter (Buck Converter)
 Step-Down Converter (Buck Converter)

Ts
1
Vo   vo (t )dt
Ts 0
t on t off
1
Vo   Vd (t ) dt   0 dt
Ts 0 t on

ton
Vo  Vd
Ts

Vo  DVd
 Step-Down Converter (Buck Converter)
• Continuous conduction mode
– A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current
through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero during the
commutation cycle.
 Design procedure for Buck Converter
• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency:

– –preferably >20KHz for negligible acoustic noise

• Higher fs results in smaller L, but higher device losses.

– Thus lowering efficiency and larger heat sink.
 Design procedure for Buck Converter
• Inductor requirement

• C Calculation

• Possible switching devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power

MOSFET can reach MHz range.
 Example-1
• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source.
Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) output voltage ripple.

Solution
(a) output voltage

52
 Example-1
(b) Output Ripple

53
 Example-2
• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of 25V.
The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is 125W. (a)
Determine the duty ratio, (b) value of L to ensure continuous
current, (c) value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple
factor to 0.5%.
Solution
(b) Value of L
(a) output voltage

54
 Example-2
• Resistance is calculated as

• L must at least be 10 times greater than Lmin.

55
 (c) Value of C
Example-2
• Value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to
0.5% can be calculated using following equation.

56
 Example-3
• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V when
the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter such that
it will be in continuous current mode. The output voltage ripple
must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the frequency and the values
of each component. Suggest the power switch also.

Solution:
• First of all determine the switching frequency.

• Then calculate the switching duty ratio

57
 Example-3
• Now value of inductor can be chosen to ensure continuous conduction

58
 Example-3
• Value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to
0.5% can be calculated using following equation.

59
 Example-3
• Selection of Power semiconductor switch

60
 Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)
• A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power
converter with an output voltage greater than its input
voltage. 
 Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)
• When the switch is closed, current flows through the
inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor stores
the energy.
• Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive. 
 Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)
• When switch is opened, the output receives energy from
the input as well as from the inductor.

• Hence output is large.

Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)

S Closed

S Open
Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)
 Step-Up Converter (Boost Converter)

• Boost Converter Design

• Minimum inductor value

• Capacitor Value
 Example-4
• The boost converter has the following parameters:
Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF,
fs=40KHz. Determine (a) output voltage, (b) output
voltage ripple.

Solution
(b) output voltage ripple
(a) output voltage

67
 Example-5
• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of
36V from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple
factor must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio,
switching frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power
device.

Solution
• First of all determine the switching frequency.

• Then calculate the switching duty ratio

68
 Example-5
• Calculate the load resistance

• Calculate inductor value to ensure continuous current

• Inductance must be greeter than or equal to Lmin

69
 Example-5
• Then calculate the Capacitor Value for ripple factor less than 0.5%

• While selecting the power device we must take into account the switching frequency

70
 Example-5
• Selection of Power semiconductor switch

71
 Buck-Boost Converter
• The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC
converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either
greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude.
– If D>0.5, output is higher
– If D<0.5, output is lower

• Output voltage is always negative

 Buck-Boost Converter
• while in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly
connected to the inductor (L). This results in
accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor
supplies energy to the output load.
 Buck-Boost Converter
• In Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load
and capacitor, so energy is transferred from L to C and R.
 Buck-Boost Converter
• In ON-state (Switch Closed)
 Buck-Boost Converter
• In OFF-state (Switch Opened)
 Buck-Boost Converter
• Steady state operation
Buck-Boost Converter
 Example-6
• Determine the switching duty ratio of a buck-boost converter such
that the output voltage is -28V when the input is 100V. The load is
1Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in continuous
current mode. The output voltage ripple must not be more than
0.5%. Specify the frequency and the values of each component.
Suggest the power switch also.
Solution:
• First of all determine the switching frequency.

• Then calculate the switching duty ratio

79
 Example-6
• Then calculate the Capacitor Value for ripple factor less than 0.5%

• Value of inductor can be calculated as

80
 Example-6
• While selecting the power device we must take into account the switching frequency

81