Carbohydrate and its functional

properties in food products

Carbohydrate and its functional
properties
Carbohydrates cover a wide range of natural compounds, such
as starches and sugars, which are all based on monosaccharides.

All carbohydrates are compounds of the chemicals carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen and have the general formula (CH2O)n,
e.g. glucose (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6.
Carbohydrate and its functional
properties

Carbohydrates can be divided into three main groups:

• monosaccharides;

• disaccharides;

• polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides

These are the simplest carbohydrate molecules.

The most commonly occurring monosaccharides

in food are glucose, fructose and galactose.

The formula for glucose is C6H12O6.

Disaccharides

These are formed when two monosaccharide molecules join

together with the elimination of one molecule of water.

They have the general formula C12H22O11.

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11 + H2O

Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + Water
Examples of disaccharides are:
• sucrose (glucose and fructose);
• lactose (glucose and galactose);
• maltose (2 molecules of glucose).
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharide

molecules, joined together.
They have the general formula (C6H10O5)n where ‘n’ is a
large number.
Examples of polysaccharides include:
• starch;
• glycogen;
• cellulose;
• pectin.
Carbohydrate in food
Many foods contain some carbohydrate but the amounts of
sugars, starch and fibre differ.
Sugars are naturally present in foods such as milk , fruits,
vegetables and honey.
In some countries, sugar beet and sugar cane are the most
common sources of sugar.
Honey, treacle(molasses) and golden syrup are also popular.

Starch is present in foods such as

potatoes, bread, rice and pasta.
Carbohydrate in food

Fibre is present in whole grains, fruits and vegetables, especially

the skin covering of seeds.

It is a mixture of substances (mainly complex carbohydrates)

which cannot be digested in the small intestine.

Fibre, also known as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), e.g.

cellulose and pectin and guar gum is found in fruits, vegetables,
beans and cereals.
 Carbohydrate and its functional
properties in food products

Carbohydrates perform different functions in food products.

They:
• help cause the colour change of bread, toast and bakery
products;
• contribute to the chewiness, colour and sweet flavour of
caramel;
• thicken products such as sauces and custards.
 Dextrinisation
Foods which are baked, grilled or roasted undergo colour, odour and
flavour changes.
This is due to a reaction involving protein and a reducing sugar. These
polymerise to form complex brown coloured compounds called dextrins.

These compounds contribute to the colour and flavour of many foods

such as toast, bread etc. This is known as non-enzymic browning
(Maillard reaction).
Parts of amino acid and sugar molecules in food combine, when heated,
to form brown compounds which change it’s colour, odour and flavour.
Caramelisation

When sucrose (sugar) is heated above its melting

point it undergoes a physical change to produce
caramel.
This happens more readily without water,
however syrups will caramelise with rapid
heating.
This process is used extensively in the production
of confectionary. Overheating will cause the
substance to become bitter and dark.
Gelatinisation

When starch is mixed with water and heated, the

starch granules swell and eventually rupture,
absorbing liquid which thickens the mixture.
On cooling, if enough starch is used, a gel forms.
This process is used in the production of
blancmange.
Other characteristics
Flavouring
Sugar, e.g. sucrose, may be used to flavour many products
such as drinks, cakes, tomato sauce and confectionary. It
supplies sweetness and mouth feel.

Preserving
Sugar in high concentrations prevents the growth of micro-
organism.

It is used extensively in the production of jam, marmalade and

some canned fruit. Sugar is an important ingredient in
determining the shelf-life of a product.
Other characteristics

Jelling

Some fruits, such as apples and blackcurrants, are rich sources of

pectin.
Pectin is used as a jelling agent in the production of jam.
 Protein and its functional
properties in food products
Protein and its functional properties
in food products

Most foods contain protein, such as collagen in meat, gluten in

wheat flour and albumin in egg white.

Some types of protein help with reactions – these are called

enzymes, whilst others form part of the structure of the cells.
 Amino acids
Protein is made up of small units called amino acids. Amino
acids are compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen.
A few also contain sulphur and phosphorous.

There are around 20 different amino acids commonly found

in plant and animal proteins.
All amino acids have an acid group (X) and an amino group
(Y). The rest of the amino acid is represented by ‘R’ and is
different for every amino acid.
In the simplest amino acid, glycine, ‘R’ is a hydrogen atom,
but in other amino acids ‘R’ is much more complex and
may contain a benzene ring (Z).
Dipeptides and polypepetides

When two amino acids are joined together in

this way, a dipeptide is formed.

A polypeptide is created when many amino

acids are joined together.

A typical protein may contain 500 or more

amino acids, joined together by peptide bonds.
Dipeptides and polypepetides

Each protein has its own specific number and

sequence of amino acids.

The chains of amino acids making up the

structure are also held together by bonds,
sometimes containing sulphur.

The shape of the molecule is important as it is

often determines the function of the protein.
 Denaturation

Denaturation is the change in structure of protein molecules. The

process results in the unfolding of molecules. Factors which
contribute to denaturation are heat, salts, pH and mechanical action.

Denaturation is a partially reversible change. For example, when an

egg white is whisked it incorporates air to form a foam.

If the foam is left to stand, it will

collapse back to form liquid egg
white.
Coagulation
Coagulation follows denaturation. For
example, when egg white is cooked it changes
colour and becomes firmer or sets.

The heat causes egg proteins to unfold from

their coiled state and form a solid stable
network.

This change is irreversible.

Coagulation

Another form of coagulation occurs in the production of cheese.

Rennin (an enzyme from a calf’s stomach) is added to milk
causing the protein casein to clot, producing curds (solid) and
whey (liquid).

Other applications of coagulation are:

• yogurt production;
• thickening of sauces with beaten egg;
• binding ingredients together, e.g. fish, cakes,
reformed meats;
• providing a coating for products, e.g. scotch eggs.
Gluten formation

Two proteins, gliadin and glutenin, found in wheat flour, form

gluten when mixed with water.

Gluten is strong, elastic and forms a 3D network in dough. In the

production of bread, kneading helps untangle the gluten strands and
align them.

Gluten helps give structure to the bread and keeps in the gases that
expand during cooking. The amount and type of protein present
depends on the flour type and quality. Strong flour contains a
maximum of 17% protein, plain flour 10%.
Gluten development

A cross section is shown below of under developed dough and

weak or soft flour 8% respectively.

Products that require short or non-elastic textures, such as

biscuits and cakes, use flours with lower protein contents.
Gelation

Gelatine is a protein which is extracted from collagen, present in

connective tissue in meat.

When it is mixed with warm water the gelatine protein molecules

start to unwind.

Although on cooling a stable network is formed, trapping the

liquid.

Gelation is reversible.
Fat and its functional
properties in food products
Fatty Acids

Fats are composed of fatty acids and

glycerol.
A fatty acid is made up of a chain of
carbon atoms, with a methyl group at one
end and an acid group at the other.
Each atom in between has either one or
two hydrogen atoms attached.
Fats

At one end of the carbon chain is the acid group which is able to
combine with the glycerol.

Three fatty acids combine with one molecule of glycerol to form

a triglyceride. The fat found in food is made up of triglycerides.
 Saturated or unsaturated fat

If the fatty acid has all the hydrogen

atoms it can hold it is said to be saturated.

If however some of the hydrogen atoms

are missing and have been replaced by a
double bond between the carbon atoms,
then the fatty acid is said to be
unsaturated.
Polyunsaturated fat

If there is one double bond the fatty acid is known

as a monounsaturated fatty acid.
If there is more than one double bond then the fatty
acid is known as a polyunsaturated fatty acid.
 Saturated fat

The nature of the fat depends upon the types of fatty acids which
make up the triglycerides.
All fats contain both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids but are
usually described as ‘saturated’ or ‘unsaturated’ according to the
proportions of fatty acids present.
For example butter is often described as a ‘saturated’ fat because it
has more saturated fatty acids than unsaturated fatty acids, while
most vegetable oils are described as ‘unsaturated’ as they have more
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Unsaturated fat

Most ‘unsaturated fats’ are liquid at room temperature, are usually

of vegetable origin and are commonly known as oils.
Vegetable and fish oils can be ‘hardened’ by a process which adds
hydrogen atoms to some of the double bonds in the unsaturated
fatty acids. This process is know as ‘hydrogenation’.
Hydrogenated vegetable oils are occasionally used in the
manufacture of margarine and cooking fats, which may be used to
produce cakes, biscuits and other bakery products.
Rancidity

When fats spoil, they become rancid.

Rancidity is caused by the process of oxidation, which is a
reaction between unsaturated fatty acids and the oxygen in the
air.
The reaction is accelerated by heat, light and the presence of
trace metals. It causes discolouration and the development of
‘off’ flavours.
Shortening

Shortcrust pastry, biscuits and shortbread rely on fat to give them their
characteristic crumbly texture.
The fats coats the flour particles and prevents them from absorbing
water. This reduces the formation of gluten development, which
would cause the dough to become elastic.

Fats such as pure vegetable fats or lard are suitable for shortening
because of their low water content. There are distinctive colours
associated with the type of fat used. Margarine produces a golden
colour and lard produces a pale yellow. A compromise is sometimes
reached by using a combination of the two.
Plasticity

Fats do not melt at fixed temperatures, but over a range.

This property is called plasticity. It gives all fats unique
character.
The plasticity is due to the mixture of triglycerides, each
with it’s own melting point. Some products are
formulated with fats with lower melting points so they
can spread from the fridge, e.g. margarine, or melt on
the tongue, e.g. chocolate.
Other fats have a higher melting point and are used for
cooking.
Aeration

Products such as creamed cakes need air incorporated into the

mixture in order to give a well risen texture.
This is achieved by creaming a fat, such as butter or margarine,
with caster sugar.
Small bubbles of air are incorporated and form a stable foam.
Flakiness

Flaky and puff pastry use fat to help separate layers of gluten and
starch formed in the dough. The fat melts during cooking, leaving
minute layers.

The liquid present produces steam which evaporates and causes

the layers to rise.

The fat prevents the layers sticking together.

Retention of moisture

Some fats can help retain a bakery product’s moisture and increase
its shelf-life.
They may also be used to baste food being cooked by dry heat.
Glaze

Placed on hot vegetables, some fats, e.g. butter or margarine, give

glossy appearance.

Fats also add shine to sauces.

Sensory attributes

All fats and oils have unique flavours and odours.

Some are more suited for particular purposes than others, e.g. olive
oil for salad dressing (for flavour) and lard for pastry (due to its
blandness).

They can also contribute to the texture of the food, for example
increasing succulence.