Detection of Signal in noise

1
Block Diagram of Radar System

2
Range-Azimuth-Doppler Cells to Be
Thresholded

3
 Noise
If you were to look at noise on
an oscilloscope, you’d see
something like

 If the conditions of the

Central Limit theorem are satisfied,
then the I and Q components each have a zero-mean Gaussian
pdf (i.e. )) :

𝑛=𝐼 +𝑖𝑄
 

  ´2
𝑛 =2 𝜎
2

4
 Linear Detector
The amplitude of the noise z (i.e.   )
the square root of the sum of the
squares of the I and Q data) z

follows a Rayleigh distribution:

  2
𝑧 𝑧

{
𝑝 ( 𝑧 )= 𝜎 2
exp −
2𝜎(
0,𝑧<0
2
, 𝑧 ≥0
)
p(z)

𝜋
 
´𝑧 =
2 √
𝜎

 𝑧´2=2 𝜎 2

 𝑧´𝑛=𝜎 𝑛 2𝑛 /2 Γ (1+𝑛/ 2) z
5
 Square-Law-Detector
If z is instead the squared magnitude of the complex Gaussian
noise (i.e., the signal at the output of a square law detector),
the detected noise has an negative exponential PDF,
  )
p(z)
  1 𝑧

{
𝑝 ( 𝑧 )= 2 𝜎 2
exp −
(
2𝜎
0 𝑧 <0
2 )
, 𝑧≥0

𝑧 =2 𝜎 2
 ´

 𝑧´2=8 𝜎 4
z

 𝑧´𝑛=𝑛! (2 𝜎 2 )𝑛

6
 Target Detection in Noise

• Received background noise fluctuates randomly up and down

• The target echo also fluctuates…. Both are random variables!
• To decide if a target is present, at a given range, we need to set a
threshold (constant or variable)
• Detection performance (Probability of Detection) depends of the strength
of the target relative to that of the noise and the threshold setting
Probability of Detection function of SNR and Probability of False Alarm 7
The Radar Detection Problem

8
Threshold Test is Optimum

9
Basic Target Detection Test

10
Basic Target Detection Test

p(x|H0)

Ricean distribution

11
   with Different
Detection Examples

12
 Probability of  False Alarm,
We can evaluate the probability of false alarm from noise
alone. Writing the Rayleigh pdf in the form, we have:

Pdf of the amplitude

of the noise alone

then :

 : is ie. the noise power in I or Q channel

13
   Time,
False Alarm
The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by
noise alone is the false alarm time Tfa

Tk is the time between

crossings of the threshold
by noise

14
15
 Probability of False Alarm Again
Now the false alarm probability Pfa is also given by the ratio of the
time that the envelope is above the threshold to the total time

 
since the average duration of a
noise pulse is approximately the
reciprocal of the bandwidth.

16
 False alarm time
  (Examples)
By substituting
  1
𝑝𝑓𝑎 =
𝑇 𝑓𝑎 𝐵 𝐼𝐹
2
  𝑉𝑇
if (
𝑝𝑓𝑎 =exp ⁡ −
2 𝜓0 )
2
 
1 𝑉𝑇
𝑇 𝑓𝑎 =
𝐵 𝐼𝐹
exp ⁡ ( )
2 𝜓0

17
 Numerical Example
for BIF = 1 MHz and required false alarm rate of 15 minutes,

Note 1: the false alarm probabilities of practical radars are quite

small. This is due to their narrow bandwidth
Note 2: False alarm time Tfa is very sensitive to variations in the
threshold level VT due to the exponential relationship.

for BIF = 1 MHz, we have

18
   Detection,
Probability of

A is the amplitude of
the RF pulse signal

19
   Detection,
Probability of

the probability
that the envelope
will exceed VT

20
   Detection,
Probability of
The signal-to-rms noise voltage ratio is related to signal-to-noise
power by :

 at IF stage

and by substituting:

Now, using the preceding, it is possible to plot curves of

probability of detection versus signal-to-noise ratio, for given
values of probability of false alarm
21
  
and

22
 Design example
•   the customer needs that the average time between the false
Let
alarm is 15 min. If IF band is 1 MHz, then
1
Pfa   1.11 10 9
T fa B
 If we need Pd = 0.5 then the required S/N=13.05 dB
 If we need Pd = 0.9 then the required S/N=14.7 dB
 If we need Pd = 0.99 then the required S/N=15.75 dB

Note 1: change in S/N of 3dB Lead to high reliable detection 0.99

Note 2: S/N required is high even for Pd = 0.5. This is due to the
requirement for the to be small.

23
 Multiple-Pulse Effects
• The previous radar equation is for a single radar pulse
• Seldom is a radar system required to detect a target on the basis of a single
transmitted pulse.
• many pulses are usually returned from any particular target and can be used
to improve detection.
• the number of pulses nB as the antenna scans is

θB = antenna beam width (deg)

fP = PRF (Hz)  1
60
θ˙S = antenna scan rate (deg/sec)
ωm = antenna scan rate (rpm)

24
 Example
• For a ground based search radar having
θB = 1.5 ˚
fP = 300 Hz
θ˙S = 30˚/s (ωm = 5 rpm)
then the number of hits from a point target in each scan nB = 15

25
 Pulse integration

The process of summing radar echoes to

improve detection is called integration

the simplest integration method is the cathode ray tube

(CRT) display combined with the integrating properties of
the eye and brain of the operator.

26
Coherent Integration

the phase of the echo signal must be preserved

  If is the SNR for one pulse

  Then the SNR after integrating n

pulses is

27
Non-Coherent Integration

The phase information in the data is discarded

the SNR after integrating n pulses is

√  𝑛 𝑆𝑁𝑅 1 ≤ 𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑛𝑐 (𝑛)≤𝑛 𝑆𝑁𝑅1

28
 Integration Improvement Factor
Signal to Noise Gain
  𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑖 (𝑛)
• defined as: 𝐼𝑖 ( 𝑛 ) = ≤𝑛
𝑆𝑁𝑅 1
  - is the SNR of a single pulse

- is the SNR when integrating pulses

  for coherent integration:

  the new radar equation with pulses integrated is:

1/ 4
 P G 
2 2
I ( n ) 
Rmax  t i 
  4 π  kT BFL  SNR  
3
 0 s 1 min 

29
Integration of Pulses

30
Different Types of Non-Coherent Integration

31
Binary (M-of-N) Integration

32
Detection Statistics for Binary Integration

33
Optimum M for Binary Integration

34
Optimum M for Binary Integration

35
Detection Statistics for Different Types of
Integration

36
Signal to Noise Gain / Loss vs. # of Pulses

37
 Albersheim’s Equation
•   a closed-form expression relating , , and under the following
Gives
conditions:
• Nonfluctuating target in Gaussian (IID in I and Q) noise.
• Linear (not square law) detector.
• Noncoherent integration of samples.

𝑆𝑁𝑅
  (𝑑𝐵)

38
 Albersheim’s Equation (example)
•  
Suppose and are required for a nonfluctuating target in a system
using a linear detector. If detection is to be based on a single
sample and 100 samples, what is the required of each case?

from Albersheim’s Equation SNR =13.14 dB

If N = 100 samples SNR = −1.26 dB

 The difference is , or a factor of

It is the noncoherent integration gain.

39
A Graphical Example

40
 Matlab script
c=3*10^8; %light speed
PtdB=10*log10(150000); % 150 kw
f=9.4*10^9; % RF frequency
lamda=c/f; % lamda
LamdadB=20*log10(lamda); % lamda in db
thao=1.2*10^-6; %pulse width
B=1/thao; % frequency bandwidth
D=2.4; %diameter of circular antenna
GdB=10*log10(4*pi*0.6*(pi*(D/2)^2)/(lamda^2)); % antenna gain
dwell_time=18.3*10^-3; % dwell time
prf=2000; % pulse repeat frequency
n=floor(dwell_time*prf); % nbr of integrated pulses
ndB=10*log10(n); % nbr of integrated pulses in dB
LdB=3.1+2.4+3.2; % losses in dB
FdB=2.5; % noise figure
T0=10*log10(290); % Kelvin temperature in dB
K=10*log10(1.38*10^-23); % Boltzmann’s constant in dB

41
 Matlab script (cont.)
% calcul the SNRdB for range [5:150]km
R=(5:105)*1000; % range from 5 to 150 km
RdB=40*log10(R); % range in dB
sigmadB=10*log10(1); % target 1
% calcule the SNRdB for target 1 for range from 5 to 150 km
SNR=PtdB+2*GdB+LamdadB+sigmadB+ndB - (30*log10(4*pi)+K+LdB+T0+10*log10(B)
+FdB+0.16*2*R/1000+40*log10(R));
plot(R/1000,SNR);
grid;
axis([5 105 -20 100])
xlabel('range (km)');
ylabel('SNR (dB)');
sigmadB=10*log10(0.1); %target 2
% calcule the SNRdB for target 2 for range from 5 to 150 km
SNR=PtdB+2*GdB+LamdadB+sigmadB+ndB - (30*log10(4*pi)+K+LdB+T0+10*log10(B)
+FdB+2*0.16*R/1000+RdB);
hold on;
plot(R/1000,SNR,'r');
plot([5 150],[15 15],'g--');
42
 Graphical solution
to radar range equation
100

80

60
SNR (dB)

40

Target 1: 65 km
20
15 dB
Target 2: 50 km
0

-20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
range (km)
43
 Cross-Section Fluctuations
The analysis of detection has so far assumed that the echo signal from a given
target is constant. In practice, real targets are made up of several scatterers,
and the net echo depends on the way in which the contributions from these
scatterers add vectorially, and the way in which the motion of the target
(and/or radar). The echo variations are also caused by meteorological
conditions, lobe structure of the antenna, equipment instability, the variation
in target cross section and view aspect. That cause the echo varies from pulse
to pulse and scan to scan

The effect was studied by Peter

Swerling, who defined four cases
of target echo fluctuation, and
these have been widely used to
predict the performance of radar
systems.

44
Fluctuating Target Models

45
 Swerling models: Case 0

In Swerling 0 (or less commonly the Swerling 5 model) the echo

pulses are constant from pulse to pulse and scan to scan.

46
 Swerling models: Case 1
Echo pulses are assumed to be correlated (of constant
amplitude) from pulse to pulse, but uncorrelated (independent)
from scan to scan. Scan to scan fluctuations are described by an
exponential pdf:
Notional sequences of Swerling-1
1    target samples. Results from three
p ( )  exp ,  0
 ave   ave  scans with 10 pulses per scan.

47
 Swerling models: Case 2
Echo pulses are uncorrelated from pulse to pulse (and therefore
also from scan to scan). The pulse to pulse fluctuations are
described by the same exponential pdf as for Swerling-1 targets.

1    Notional sequences of Swerling-2

p ( )  exp ,  0 target samples. Results from three
 ave   ave  scans with 10 pulses per scan.

48
 Swerling models: Case 3
Swerling 1 and 2 evidently correspond to cases where the target
is composed of a large number of similar scatterers, and hence
where Gaussian statistics apply. We can also have targets where
there is one dominant scatterer plus a number of other smaller
scatterers. In such a case the pdf follows Chi-square, degree 4.

4   2 
p ( )  2 exp 
 ave   ave 

Same as Case-1 but the fluctuations

obey pdf of Chi-square.

49
 Swerling models: Case 4
echo pulses are uncorrelated from pulse to pulse (and therefore
also from scan to scan), and the pulse to pulse variations also
follows Chi-square, degree 4:
4   2 
p ( )  2 exp 
 ave   ave 

Same as Case-2 but the fluctuations

obey pdf of Chi-square.

50
Swerling Target Models

substituted in the radar

equation in radar equation
51
Swerling Target Models

substituted in the radar

equation in radar equation
52
RCS Variability for Different Target Models

53
Fluctuating Target Single Pulse Detection : Rayleigh
Amplitude

54
Fluctuating Target Single Pulse Detection

55
Additional Single Pulse SNR Required
As one would expect, the single
pulse SNR required to achieve a
particular Pd (for Pd > 0.4) will
be higher for a fluctuating target
than for a constant amplitude
signal.
However, for Pd < 0.4, the
system takes advantage of the
fact that a fluctuating target will
occasionally present echo
signals larger than the average,
and so the required SNR is
lower.

56
Integration improvement factor as a function of the number
of pulses integrated

57
 Detection Statistics for Different Target Fluctuation Models

6 dB 14.5 dB
loss of
8.5 dB

pulse-to pulse fluctuations

(Swerling 2 and 4) aid target
detectability compared with
scan-to-scan detectability.
Swerling case 1 is widely used
because it gives conservative
estimation (high SNR)
Average value 58
Shnidman Empirical Formulae for SNR
(for Steady and Swerling Targets)

Shnidman’s Equation
Applied to noncoherent
integration and square law
detector case

59
Shnidman Empirical Formulae for SNR
(for Steady and Swerling Targets)

60
Shnidman’s Equation

61
 Neyman-Pearson Detector (review)

Note:
False alarm
consume finite
resources of
the radar: bus,
computation, …

 • NP Detector employs a fixed threshold that maximizes given a specific

probability of false alarm
• NP Detector assumes that the interference is IID over all cells and the
distribution (with its parameters) of the interference are known.

What we have to do if the distribution or its parameters are not known!!!

62
 Practical Setting of Thresholds

• Need to develop a methodology to set target detection

threshold that will adapt to:
₋ Thermal noise power variation with temperature
₋ Intentional jamming or unintentional electromagnetic
interference
₋ Clutter residue from rain and mountain, …
63
 Cell-Averaging Constant False Alarm Rate
Sets detection threshold using signal in adjacent range bins

 𝑥𝑖 The assumption are:

- The detector is square law.
- The interference is IID and
has Rayleigh distributed in
voltage.
𝑀
  1
 is a function of 𝑍= ∑ 𝑥𝑖
the and 𝑀 𝑖=1
reference
1/ 𝑀
window size. 𝐾 0 =𝑀 ( 𝑃´ 𝐹𝐴 − 1)
 

 is the estimated interference power from measured samples, it is a random variable
and so , the detector will be considered CFAR if the expected value of does not
depend on the actual value of . 64
 Homogeneous Performance

SINR : signal-to-interference-plus noise-ratio

Interfering sources include intentional jamming, unintentional electromagnetic
interference, and background returns (clutters).

CA-CFAR works well in homogeneous environments:

- The interference is IID ,
- Leading and lagging windows do not contain returns from other targets 65
 CA-CFAR Loss
  Since a finite number of cells are used, the CA-CFAR threshold on average is
higher than the NP threshold. The higher threshold leads to a reduction in .
To achieve a equivalent to that of the NP detector requires a higher SINR.
The ratio of the SINR required for a CA-CFAR detector to that required for an
NP detector, for a given value of and , is defined as the CFAR loss.

It is for Swerling 1 or
Swerling 2 target

66
 CA-CFAR Problems : Self Target Masking
Target returns in the reference window bias the threshold
estimate and may prevent the target in the cell under test from
being detected.

67
 CA-CFAR Problems : Mutual Target Masking

A target present in the reference window imposes a bias on the

threshold that may mask a target in the CUT

68
 CA-CFAR Problems : Clutter boundaries
Sharp clutter or interference power lead to an increased
number of false alarms and to masking of targets located
near the boundary.

Sharp clutter lead to an

increased number of
false alarms and to
masking of targets
located near the
boundary.

69
 Greatest-of Mean Level CFAR
• Find mean value of M/2 cells before and after test cell
separately
• Use larger noise estimate to determine threshold

70
Greatest-of Mean Level CFAR (example)

71
 Censored-CFAR (CS-CFAR)
• Compute and use noise estimates as in Greatest-of, but
remove the largest N samples before computing each average

• Up to N nearby targets can be in each window without

affecting threshold
• Ordering the samples from each window is computationally
expensive
72
 Order Statistics CFAR (OS-CFAR)
The OS-CFAR rank orders the M samples in the CFAR
reference window and selects the k-th sample as the CFAR
statistic.

capable of rejecting M − k interfering targets and

suppressing clutter edge false alarms.

73
CS- and OS-CFAR (example)

The Order
Statistic (OS),
and Censored
CFARs mitigate
mutual target
masking while
the CA-CFAR
misses one
target

74
Summary

75