ASSIGNMENT ON

MOTIVATION – CONCEPT, TYPES AND MOTIVATIONAL

STRATEGIES

SUBMITTED BY

HOPE WILSON AGBEZUKE

SUBMITTED TO

DR. REENA ARGAWAL

UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
 Concept of Motivation
Motivation: The “Why” of Behaviour

• Life is a gift . . . Accept it.

Life is an adventure . . . Dare it.
Life is a mystery . . . Unfold it.
Life is a struggle . . . Face it.
Life is a puzzle . . . Solve it.
Life is an opportunity . . . Take it.
Life is a mission . . . Fulfill it.
Life is a goal . . . Achieve it.

—Author Unknown
 Origin - Etymology

• The English word motivation has its etymological roots in the Latin
word movere, which means ‘‘to move’’.
 Meaning and Definition of motivation

• The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and

sustain goal-directed behaviour.
• Motivation can also be defined as the process of arousing, sustaining
and regulating activity. (C. W. Good, 1973)
• According to Blaire, G. M. et al. (1947), “motivation is the process in
which the leaner’s internal energies or needs are directed towards
various goal objects in his environment”
• Motivation is a hypothetical construct, meaning that it is an
abstraction, not an overt entity that can be seen with the eyes.
• Although it is not observable in and of itself, motivation does have
direct links with observable behaviour.
• That is, motivation cannot be observed, but its effects may be
observed.
• Specifically, one infers motivation from observing the movement or
behaviour of individuals
• If, after a few hours of not eating, you get up from your chair and go to
the kitchen to get yourself a snack, we might infer that the motive – that
force which caused you to move - for your behaviour is hunger.
• The hunger motive activates your behaviour (causing you to stand), directs
it (moving you toward the kitchen), and sustains it (as you make yourself a
snack and consume it) until you’ve achieved your goal (satisfying your
hunger).
• Motives are the “whys” of behavior—the needs or wants that drive
behaviour and explain why we do what we do. We don’t actually observe a
motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behaviour we
observe.
 Types of Motivation

• Educational psychology has identified two basic classifications of

motivation
 Extrinsic (external)
 Intrinsic (internal)
 Extrinsic (external)

• It involves doing something to obtain something else (a means to an

end).
• Extrinsic motivation is often influenced by external incentives such
as rewards and the threat of punishment.
• For example, a student may study hard for a test in order to obtain a
good grade in the course.
• Thus, extrinsically motivated learners may have to be enticed or
prodded, may process information only superficially, and are often
interested in performing only easy tasks and meeting minimal
classroom requirements.
 Intrinsic motivation

• It involves the internal inspiration to do something for its own sake

(an end in itself).
• For example, a student may study hard for a test because he or she
enjoys the content of the course.
• Intrinsic motivation arises from a desire to learn a topic due to its
inherent interests, for self-fulfillment, enjoyment and to achieve a
mastery of the subject.
• It exists within the individual rather than relying on external
pressures or desire for reward.
 4 Perspectives on Motivation

• Behavioural
• Humanistic
• Cognitive
• Social
 The Behavioural Perspective

• The behavioral perspective emphasizes external rewards and

punishments as keys in determining a student’s motivation. These
can be called incentives.
• Incentives are positive or negative stimuli or events that can
motivate a student’s behavior.
• Advocates of the use of incentives emphasize that they add interest
or excitement to the class and direct attention toward appropriate
behavior and away from inappropriate behavior (Emmer & Evertson,
2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017).
 The Humanistic Perspective
• The humanistic perspective
stresses students’ capacity for
personal growth, freedom to
choose their destiny, and
positive qualities (such as
being sensitive to others).
• This perspective is closely
associated with Abraham
Maslow’s (1954, 1971) belief
that certain basic needs must
be met before higher needs
can be satisfied.
 The Cognitive Perspective

• According to the cognitive perspective on motivation, students’

thoughts guide their motivation.
• Thus, whereas the behavioral perspective sees the student’s
motivation as a consequence of external incentives, the cognitive
perspective argues that external influences should be deemphasized.
• The cognitive perspective recommends giving students more
responsibility for controlling their own achievement outcomes (Miele
& Scholer, 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2016).
 The Social-Cognitive Perspective

• Theorists: Albert Bandura, Dale Schunk, and Barry Zimmerman.

• They proposed or emphasized two factors that strongly influence
motivation to learn:
the models to which people are exposed and
people’s sense of self-efficacy, or how capable they believe they
are to handle a particular task.
 Power of Persuasive Models
• One factor that positively affects students’ self-efficacy and
motivation to learn certain behaviors is the opportunity to see other
people exhibiting those behaviours and to observe the consequences
that occur.
• Social cognitive theorists refer to this as observation, imitation, and
vicarious reinforcement.
• Vicarious reinforcement means that observers expect to receive the
same reinforcer that they see someone else get for exhibiting a
particular behavior.
 The Importance of Self-Efficacy

• Self efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to handle a particular task.

• An individual’s sense of self-efficacy can affect motivation to learn
through its influence on the following:
 the learning goal one chooses
the outcome one expects
the reasons (or attributions) one gives to explain successes
and failures.
 Choice of Learning Goal

• Analyses of learning goals suggest that a student may choose a task

mastery goal, a performance-approach goal, a performance-
avoidance goal, or a combination of task mastery and performance-
approach goals (Britner & Pajares, 2006; Murayama & Elliot, 2009;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Urdan & Mestas, 2006; Walker & Greene,
2009; Usher & Pajares, 2008b).
 Task – mastery goal
• It involves doing what is necessary to learn meaningfully the
information and skills that have been assigned. Students with high
levels of self-efficacy choose this goal more often than do students
with low levels of self-efficacy.
• In pursuit of task mastery goals, students with high efficacy will use a
variety of encoding techniques, do more organization of information to
make it meaningful, review and practice more frequently, monitor
their understanding more closely, formulate more effective learning
strategies, and treat mistakes as part of learning.
 Performance–approach goal
• This involves demonstrating to teachers and peers one’s superior
intellectual ability by outperforming most others in class.
• If the best way to accomplish this goal is to do assignments neatly
and exactly according to directions, or to memorize large amounts of
information to get a high grade on a test without necessarily
understanding the ideas or how they relate to one another, then
these tactics will be used.
• This approach, in Ghana, is called the “chew-pour-pass-and-forget”
 Performance-avoidance goals

• It involves reducing the possibility of failure so as not to appear less

capable than other students.
• Students can reduce their chances of failure by avoiding novel and
challenging tasks or by cheating.
• They can also engage in self-handicapping behaviors, such as putting
off homework or projects until the last minute, studying superficially
for an exam, and getting involved in many in-school and out-of-
school nonacademic activities.
• The purpose of self-handicapping is to be able to blame poor
performance on the circumstances rather than on one’s ability.
 Outcome Expectations

• A second way in which self-efficacy can affect motivation is in terms

of the outcomes that students expect.
• Those with high levels of self-efficacy more often expect a positive
outcome.
• As a result, they tend to be more willing to use the more complex
and time-consuming learning skills and to persist longer in the face
of difficulties.
 Attributions
• A third way in which self-efficacy influences motivation is through
the reasons students cite to explain why they succeeded or failed at
a task.
• Those with a high level of self-efficacy for a subject are likely to
attribute failure to insufficient effort (and so vow to work harder the
next time) but credit their success to a combination of ability and
effort.
• However, their peers who are lower in self-efficacy are likely to
explain their failures by saying that they just don’t have the ability
to do well, but they will chalk their successes up to an easy task or
luck.
 Classroom motivational strategies

• To capture and sustain students’ interest in learning, the teacher

needs to adopt some motivational strategies.
• Some of them are:
Promoting positive and friendly learning
environment
• A teacher’s attitude and personality creates an overall impact in the
classroom.
• Displaying a caring attitude will encourage students to participate in
class discussions and to perform in different learning tasks.
• Show enthusiasm and commitment to teach.
• Accommodating attitude fosters positive responses from students. 
Making it real
• In order to foster intrinsic motivation, the teacher should try to create
learning activities based on topics to be taught.
• Learning should be practical.
• Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
• Strategies include using live models, videos, simulators.
Varying teaching techniques
• The use of only one teaching approach creates boredom
in students and makes them find the material
uninteresting to exert their learning energy on.
• Every lesson requires different teaching techniques to
capture every student’s attention in the classroom.
Provide choices
• Students can have increased motivation when they feel some sense of
autonomy or authority in the learning process. Thus, motivation declines
when students have no voice in the class structure.
• Options can be as simple as letting them pick their setting classroom rules
or select from alternate assignments, or as complex as "contract teaching"
wherein students can determine their own grading scale, due dates and
assignments. 
Strategize with struggling students
• When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-
efficacy or low motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach
them how to learn.
• Outline specific strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or
reviewing for an exam.
• This makes students believe in you and your lessons for believing in them.
Thank You
 Reference
• Aggarwal, J. C. (2003). Essentials of Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). Vikas.

• Author, G. (2016, December 24). 15 Actionable Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation and
Engagement. Getting Smart. https://www.gettingsmart.com/2016/08/15-actionable-strategies-for-increasing-
student-motivation-and-engagement/

• Nuckols, C. E. A. (2016, October 3). Strategies to Motivate Students in the Classroom. Grafton.
https://www.grafton.org/strategies-to-motivate-students-in-the-classroom/

• Santrock, J. W. (2018). Educational Psychology 5th Edition John W. Santrock (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.

• Snowman, J., McCown, R., & Biehler, R. (2010). Psychology Applied to Teaching (13th ed.). Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning.

• Team, U. (2020, February 21). 14 Best Techniques for Motivating Students. Unicheck Blog for Education
Junkies. https://unicheck.com/blog/motivating-students

• Woolfolk, A. (2015). Educational Psychology, Global Edition (13th ed.). Pearson.