L1-5 - Process Instumentation 5 Lectures New 2021

Process Instrumentation
PROCESS
INSTRUMENTATION
B.Tech Second Year

(Chemical Engg)
1
Objectives:
• To understand the basic principles of

measurement and the characteristics of
measurement systems
• Measurement of important process variables i.e.

temperature, pressure, flow, level and
composition
2
Objectives:
The course learning objectives:

Student would be able to:
– Identify suitable instruments for various chemical
processes and also can identify the basic
instrumentation characteristics
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PROCESS
INSTRUMENTATION
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Process Instrumentation Transducers and Transmitters
Figure 1 A typical process transducer.
12
Process Instrumentation Transducer
• Convert the magnitude of a process variable (e.g., flow

rate, pressure, temperature, level, or concentration) into
a signal that can be sent directly to the controller.
• Sensing element required to convert the measured

quantity, that is, the process variable, into some quantity
more appropriate for mechanical or electrical processing
within the transducer.
13
Why?
• automatic controllers located in a control
room that is remote from the process
• the term transmitter is an appropriate
designation for combined functions of
signal generation and line driving.
Line driving – ability of the transmitter to furnish

sufficient air (pneumatic systems) or current (for
electrical systems) to overcome the inherent resistance
and capacitance of a tubing or electrical lines
connecting the transmitter to the controller.
14
15
Standard Instrumentation Signal
Levels
• Before 1960, instrumentation in the process

industries utilized pneumatic (air pressure) signals to
transmit measurement and control information
almost exclusively.
• These devices make use of mechanical force-

balance elements to generate signals in the range of
3 to 15 psig, an industry standard.
16
• Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has
come into widespread use.
• Signals used such as:

 1 – 5 mA
 4 – 20 mA
(most industrial instrumentation standard)
 10 – 50 mA
 0 – 5 volts
 ±10 direct current (VDC)
17
Transmitters
• A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level

appropriate for input to a controller, such as 4 to 20 mA.
• Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
• In addition, most commercial transmitters have an adjustable
input range (or span).
• For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted so that
the input range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is
50 to 150 °C.
18
Process Instrumentation • In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:
Input Output
50 °C 4 mA
150 °C 20 mA
• This instrument (transducer) has a lower limit or zero of 50 °C

and a range or span of 100 °C.
• For the temperature transmitter discussed above, the relation
between transducer output and input is
 20 mA  4 mA 
Tm  mA     
 150 C  50 C 

T 
 50 

C  4 mA
 mA  
 
  0.16   T C  4 mA
 C 19
The gain of the measurement element Km is 0.16 mA/°C. For any
linear instrument:
range of instrument output

Km  (9-1)
range of instrument input
20
Process Instrumentation Example 1
Suppose a liquid level ranging from 5.5 to 8.6

m is linearly converted to pneumatics
pressure ranging from 3 to 15 psi.
1. What pressure will result from a level of 7.2 m?
2. What level does a pressure of 4.7 psi represent?
21
Process Instrumentation Example 2
Several linear transmitter have been
installed and calibrated as followed:
Flow rate 400 gal/min-15 psig Pneumatic
0 gal/min-3 psig transmitter
Pressure 30 in Hg – 20 mA Current transmitter

10 in Hg – 4 mA
Level 20 m -5 VDC Voltage transmitter
0.5 m – 1 VDC
Q1: Develop an expression for the output of each transmitter

as a function of its input. Be sure to include appropriate units
Q2: What is the gain of each transmitter
22
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• A sensor element measures a process variable:

flow rate, temperature, pressure, level, pH,
density, composition, etc. ... Laboratory
equipment manufacturers are likely to refer to
the combined device(sensor+transmitter) as a
transducer.
25
• A pressure sensor is any device

that measures pressure and
converts it to an electrical signal.
... All transducers, transmitters,
and switches are sensors, but
not all sensors are
transducers, transmitters, or
switches.
26
Instrumentation
Important Phenomena of Measuring

Instruments
- an error (dynamic)
- a lag
Example: a thermometer placed in a cup of hot water
will not instantly indicate the true temperature of the
water.
27
Instrumentation
Factors that contribute to the time lag

of the instruments:
•Response time of the sensor
•Time lag of the transducer
•The distance the feedback signal must travel from the
transducer to the controller.
•The time required for the controller to process
information
•The distance the control signal travel from the
controller to the final control element.
•The time lag of the final control element
28
System performance
1). Sensitivity
Static sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the
change in output to the corresponding
change in input under static or steady state
conditions.
– du : the change in input

– dy : the corresponding change in output
29
System performance
2). Accuracy and precision

The accuracy of a measuring system is
normally stated in terms of the errors
introduced
However, it is a common practice to express the error as a

percentage of the measuring range of the equipment
30
System performance
“Precision” is a term often confused with

accuracy, but a precise measurement may not
be an accurate measurement. If the measuring
device is subjected to the same input for several
times and the indicated results lie closely
together, then the instrument is said to be of
high precision.
31
Process Instrumentation System performance cont:
32
23
Process Instrumentation Repeatability
 repeatability is the failure of a sensor to represent the same

value under identical conditions when measured at different
times
 source: thermal noise, buildup charge, material plasticity, ...
 r  F 100%
S
24
Process Instrumentation Hysteresis
 hysteresis is the deviation of the sensor’s output at any given

point when approached from two different directions
 caused by electrical or mechanical properties

 mechanical friction
 magnetization
 thermal properties
 loose linkages
A linear instrument calibration showing its zero and span.
35
Process Instrumentation System performance cont:
Figure 1. Hysteresis effects with measuring instruments: (a) terminology;

(b) hysteretic plus dead band; (c) hysteretic error only; (d) dead band error only.
36
Process Instrumentation Discussion
Dynamics performance?
Static performance?
37
36
Process Instrumentation Static and dynamic performance
 static characteristics
 values given for steady state measurement
 dynamic characteristics
 values of the response to input changes
 many sensors have a time-dependent behavior

 output signal needs time to adapt to change in
input
 example - LM135 temperature sensor

 voltage step at input
 output needs time to settle
37
Process Instrumentation Dynamic error
 different inputs considered when analyzing dynamic characteristics

step (e.g., sudden temperature change)
ramp (e.g., gradual temperature change)
sinusoid (e.g., sound waves)
 any real signal can be described as superposition of these signals

Process Instrumentation Dynamics performance
The dynamic characteristics of a measuring
instrument describe its behaviour between the
time a measured quantity changes value and the
time when the instrument output attains a steady
value in response.
The static characteristics of measuring instruments

are concerned only with the steady-state reading
that the instrument settles down to, such as the
accuracy of the reading, etc.
40
The dynamic performance of both process
measuring and control systems is very important
and is specified by responses to certain standard
test inputs:
• the step input,

• the ramp input, and
• the sinewave input.
1st order instrument

2nd order instrument
41
Dynamics performance
Examples of 1st order instrument?
Why it is important to know the dynamics of

the instrument?
Control mechanism, tuning, stability etc.
43
44
• How to know which sensor

or instrument is first order or
second order or of any order
• We use transfer function
given in next slides
45
38
Process Instrumentation Transfer function
 input-output behavior of sensor captured with constant-

coefficient linear differential equation (sensor is linear time-
invariant system)
 general form linear differential equation
d n y(t) d n1 y(t) d1 y(t) dm x(t) dm1x(t)
an  ...  a1  a0 y(t)  bm  ...  b0
dt  n1  m1
n1 m1
a dt b dt
n
dt dt m
x(t)
 y(t) – output quantity
 x(t) – input quantity
 t – time
 ai, bi – constant physical parameters of system
 solution to equation can be computed using Laplace

transform
Y (s)
transfer
b sfunction
m of 
 b sm1 a ...
system
 b s is
 defined as
bX (s)  am n sn  a m1
n1 s n1
 ...  a1
1
s  a
0
0
43
Process Instrumentation Zero-order system
 zero-order system represents ideal or perfect dynamic

performance
 demonstrated with response to step at input
x(t) Ao/Ai
K
ci
t ω
y(t) φ
kci
t ω
step input frequency response
 no dynamic error present in zero-order systems

 none of the elements in the sensor stores
energy
•
• Zero Order Systems are defined as
follows. The output of a zero order system is
proportional to the input. At all times, the
output is equal to the input multiplied by
some constant of proportionality.
•
• Output qo = k x Input qi
• qo = kqi
•
• Where k is a proportionality constant.
48
44
Process Instrumentation First-order system
 many systems are not ideal...

 (parasitic) capacitance or
inductance
are often present
 example – liquid-in-glass thermometer xo
 input – temperature Ti(t) of
environment
 output – displacement xo of the
thermometer fluid xo=0
 liquid column has inertia (i.e.
transfer function is not ideal) Tf
Ti(t)
Examples:
Thermocouple
Control valve (flow measurement)
Why it is important?
It is necessary to take account of the time lag that
occurs between a measured quantity changing in value
and the measuring instrument indicating the change.
Fortunately, the time constant of many first-order

instruments is small relative to the dynamics of the
process being measured, and so no serious problems
are created.
50
FIGURE 4: Characteristic first-order exponential time response of a sensor to a step

change of input.
51
2nd order system:
Some sensors tend to oscillate when step

input is introduced.
Oscillation for a short period of time before it settling down to a value

that correspond to the new inputs.
52
FIGURE 4: Characteristic second-order oscillatory time response of a sensor.
53
Final Control Elements
• Every process control loop contains a final control element

(actuator), the device that enables a process variable to be
manipulated.
• For most chemical and petroleum processes, the final control
elements (usually control valves) adjust the flow rates of
materials, and indirectly, the rates of energy transfer to and
from the process.
54
55
Process Instrumentation Control Valves
• There are many different ways to manipulate the flows of
material and energy into and out of a process; for example, the
speed of a pump drive, screw conveyer, or blower can be
adjusted.
• However, a simple and widely used method of accomplishing
this result with fluids is to use a control valve, also called an
automatic control valve.
• The control valve components include the valve body, trim,
seat, and actuator.
Air-to-Open vs. Air-to-Close Control Valves

• Normally, the choice of A-O or A-C valve is based on safety
considerations.
56
A pneumatic control valve (air-to-open).
57
58
• We choose the way the valve should operate (full flow or no
flow) in case of a transmitter failure.
• Hence, A-C and A-O valves often are referred to as fail-open

and fail-closed, respectively.
59
• The block in the control diagram responsible for

manipulating the process input (or manipulated
variable) is called an actuator or final control element.
• A final control element attempts to change the process

input in a linear fashion in response to an electrical or
pneumatic signal from the system control block.
60
. Examples of these units include:

- electrical motors
- linear actuators
- taps and valves
- conveyor belts
- hydraulic pistons
- pneumatic pistons
- switches
- solenoids
- rheostats
- gates and diverters
- variable nozzles
- steering wheel
61
• Fail open means
a valve would open at a loss of signal
or power. These types
of valves require air pressure to stay
closed. Once the required air pressure
is gone, the valve will naturally open.
Under a power outage, the source of
the air pressure would be lost and
the valve would “fail” open
62
• Fail closed means the valve will close when signal is interrupted or lost. This is
the opposite of the scenario above. Since air pressure is needed to keep the
valve open, it would automatically close when power is lost because there
would no longer be a functioning air source.
•
63
Exa 1: Steam to the reboiler
Exa 2: Utility (CW or steam) to the rector (Exo- or Endo-

thermic)
64
Process Instrumentation Examples 3
65
Process Instrumentation Examples 3 cont:
A process instrumentation diagram of a flash drum is
shown above. Steam is condensed in a steam coil to
vaporize a portion of the liquid feed, and the liquid
product is removed by a pump. There are control
valves for the steam flow, vapor product, liquid
product, feed flow, and the steam flow (which allows
the steam to be rapidly evacuated in emergency
situations). Determine which of the five valves should
be fail-close (F/C) or fail-open (F/O) for safe operation
for each three cases:
66
Process Instrumentation Examples 3 cont:
A: The safest condition are achieved by the

lowest temperature and pressure in the
flash vessel.
B: Vapor flow to downstream equipment can

cause a hazardous situation
C: Liquid flow to downstream equipment can

cause a hazardous situation.
67
Process Instrumentation Answer
68
Process Instrumentation Answer
69
Process Instrumentation answer
70
Valve Positioners
Pneumatic control valves can be equipped with a valve
positioner, a type of mechanical or digital feedback controller

that senses the actual stem position, compares it to the desired
position, and adjusts the air pressure to the valve accordingly.
Specifying and Sizing Control Valves

A design equation used for sizing control valves relates valve
lift  to the actual flow rate q by means of the valve coefficient
Cv, the proportionality factor that depends predominantly on
valve size or capacity:
Pv
q  Cv f   (9-2)
gs
71
• Here q is the flow rate, f   is the flow characteristic, Pv is
the pressure drop across the valve, and gs is the specific gravity
of the fluid.
• This relation is valid for nonflashing fluids.
• Specification of the valve size is dependent on the so-called
valve characteristic f.
• Three control valve characteristics are mainly used.
• For a fixed pressure drop across the valve, the flow
characteristic f  0  f  1 is related to the lift  0    1 , that
is, the extent of valve opening, by one of the following
relations:
Linear: f 
Quick opening: f   (9-3)
Equal percentage: f  R 1
72
Process Instrumentation Types of plugs
73
Control valve characteristics.

74
where R is a valve design parameter that is usually in the range
of 20 to 50.
Rangeability
The rangeability of a control valve is defined as the ratio of
maximum to minimum input signal level. For control valves,
rangeability translates to the need to operate the valve within the
range 0.05 ≤ f ≤ 0.95 or a rangeability of 0.95/0.05 = 19.
75
Type of valves
( Final control element)
Type of valves
Ball: The restriction for this body is a solid ball which

has some part of the ball removed to provide an
adjustable area for flow. The ball is rotated to
influence the amount of flow.
The ball is rotated to adjust the fraction of the tunnel

opening available for flow. Other types of ball valves
have different sections removed from the ball to give
desired properties.
Butterfly: The butterfly valve provides a damper that is

rotated to adjust the resistance to flow.
This valve provides a small pressure drop for gas flows.
76
Type of valves
( Final control element)
Diaphragm: The diaphragm valve has one

surface which is deformed by the force from
the valve stem to vary the resistance to flow.
Gate: These valves have a flat barrier that is

adjusted to influence the area for flow.
These bodies are used primary for hand-
operated valves and valves automated for
emergency shutoff.
77
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Process Instrumentation Pro vs Cons
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Process Instrumentation Exa 1
86
Process Instrumentation Sensor
87

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Process Instrumentation

B.Tech Second Year

• To understand the basic principles of

• Measurement of important process variables i.e.

The course learning objectives:

Figure 1 A typical process transducer.

• Convert the magnitude of a process variable (e.g., flow

• Sensing element required to convert the measured

Line driving – ability of the transmitter to furnish

• Before 1960, instrumentation in the process

• These devices make use of mechanical force-

• Signals used such as:

• A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level

• This instrument (transducer) has a lower limit or zero of 50 °C

range of instrument output

Suppose a liquid level ranging from 5.5 to 8.6

Pressure 30 in Hg – 20 mA Current transmitter

Q1: Develop an expression for the output of each transmitter

Q2: What is the gain of each transmitter

• A sensor element measures a process variable:

• A pressure sensor is any device

Important Phenomena of Measuring

Factors that contribute to the time lag

– du : the change in input

2). Accuracy and precision

However, it is a common practice to express the error as a

“Precision” is a term often confused with

 repeatability is the failure of a sensor to represent the same

 hysteresis is the deviation of the sensor’s output at any given

 caused by electrical or mechanical properties

A linear instrument calibration showing its zero and span.

Figure 1. Hysteresis effects with measuring instruments: (a) terminology;

 many sensors have a time-dependent behavior

 example - LM135 temperature sensor

 different inputs considered when analyzing dynamic characteristics

 any real signal can be described as superposition of these signals

The static characteristics of measuring instruments

• the step input,

1st order instrument

Examples of 1st order instrument?

Why it is important to know the dynamics of

Control mechanism, tuning, stability etc.

• How to know which sensor

 input-output behavior of sensor captured with constant-

 solution to equation can be computed using Laplace

 zero-order system represents ideal or perfect dynamic

step input frequency response

 no dynamic error present in zero-order systems

 many systems are not ideal...

Fortunately, the time constant of many first-order

FIGURE 4: Characteristic first-order exponential time response of a sensor to a step

2nd order system:

Some sensors tend to oscillate when step

Oscillation for a short period of time before it settling down to a value

FIGURE 4: Characteristic second-order oscillatory time response of a sensor.

• Every process control loop contains a final control element

Air-to-Open vs. Air-to-Close Control Valves

A pneumatic control valve (air-to-open).

• Hence, A-C and A-O valves often are referred to as fail-open

• The block in the control diagram responsible for

• A final control element attempts to change the process

. Examples of these units include:

Exa 1: Steam to the reboiler