College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Electrical and Computer

Engineering

Introduction to Power Systems

Chapter-2
Representation of Power System
Components

Sisay Fitwi(MSc. in Electrical Power Eng.)

Electrical Power Engineering Stream
 Introduction
 ALL ANALYSIS in the engineering sciences starts with the
formulation of appropriate models.
 A model means an equivalent circuit or mathematical
model( a set of equations or relations), which appropriately
describes the interactions between different quantities.
 Many types of analysis must be performed to design and
operate an electrical power system.
 A practical way to do system analysis is to model network
components mathematically and to simulate power system
network performance using computer based programs.
 A balanced 3-phase system can be represented on a per-
phase basis.

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 …CONT.
 Network components (transformers, transmission lines,
cables, generators, loads, ets.) have different mathematical
models.
 Selection of the most appropriate models depends on the
type of analysis to be performed.
 This chapter deals with Power system component modeling
as this is the first step in the analysis of power systems
 This power system Modeling includes Modeling of
Transformer, Synchronous Machine, Transmission line
and Load.
 We will also see Single Line Diagram (One-Line Diagram),
Impedance Diagram

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 Circuit Model Power
Transformer
 A transformer is a device which
transfers electrical energy
(power) from one voltage level
to another voltage level.
 Unlike in rotating machines,
there is no energy conversion.
 A transformer is a static device
and all currents and voltages
are AC.
 The transfer of energy takes
place through the magnetic
field.

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 …CONT.
Transformer Construction
Iron Core
 The iron core is made of thin
laminated silicon steel (2-3 % silicon)
 Pre-cut insulated sheets are cut or
pressed in form and placed on the
top of each other .
 The sheets are overlap each others
to avoid (reduce) air gaps.

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 …CONT.
Transformer Construction Small transformer winding
Winding
 The winding is made of copper or
aluminum conductor, insulated with
paper or synthetic insulating material
 The windings are manufactured in
several layers, and insulation is placed
between windings.
 The primary and secondary windings
are placed on top of each others but
insulated by several layers of insulating
sheets.
 The windings are dried in vacuum and
impregnated to eliminate moisture.

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 …CONT.
Transformer Construction
Iron Cores Three phase transformer iron
core
 The three phase transformer iron
core has three legs.
 A phase winding is placed in each leg.
 The high voltage and low voltage
windings are placed on top of each
other and insulated by layers or tubes.
 Larger transformer use layered
construction shown in the previous
slides.

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 …CONT.
Transformer Construction Three phase oil transformer
 The dried and treated
transformer is placed in a steel
tank.
 The tank is filled, under
vacuum, with heated
transformer oil.
 The end of the windings are
connected to bushings.

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 …CONT.
Transformer Construction Large three phase oil transformer

 The transformer is equipped with

cooling radiators which are cooled
by forced ventilation.
 Cooling fans are installed under
the radiators.
 Large bushings connect the
windings to the electrical system.
 The oil is circulated by pumps and
forced through the radiators.
 The oil temperature, pressure are
monitored to predict transformer
performance.

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…CONT.

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Ideal Transformer

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Ideal Transformer

13
Ideal Transformer

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 Ideal Transformer
 If the transformer is ideal,

Input power = Output power.

 Assuming the power factor to be

same on both sides,

VpIp= VsIs

 Hence,

Np/Ns=Vp/Vs=Is/Ip

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Real Transformer
 Practical/real Transformer differs
from the ideal as:

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Equivalent Circuit of Practical
Single Phase Transformer

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 Real Transformer
 I2R Losses: R1 and R2 are included the real power losses in the
windings
 Leakage Flux: Not all of the flux produced by the primary current links
the winding, but there is leakage of some flux into air surrounding the
primary. Similarly, not all of the flux produced by the secondary current
(load current) links the secondary, rather there is loss of flux due to
leakage. These effects are modeled as leakage reactance in the
equivalent circuit representation (by X1 and X2). They also account the
reactive power associated the leakage reactance.


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 Real Transformer
 Exciting Current: When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
primary winding of a practical transformer on an iron core
with the secondary winding open, a small current Ie : called
the exciting current flows . It has two components:
 The major component of this current is called the magnetizing
current, which corresponds to the current through the magnetizing
susceptance Bm. The magnetizing current produces the flux in the core.
 The much smaller component of Ie which accounts for losses in the
iron core (core loss current), leads the magnetizing current by 90°.
There are two types of core losses: hysteresis and eddy current loss:
─ Hysteresis loss: occurs due to the fact that the cyclic changes of
the direction of the flux in the iron require energy which is
dissipated as heat.
─ Eddy-current loss: is due to the fact that circulating currents are
induced in the iron due to the changing flux, and these currents
pro duce an I2R loss in the iron.
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 Real Transformer
 Hysteresis loss is reduced by the use of certain high
grades of alloy steel for the core.
 Eddy-cur­rent loss is reduced by constructing the core with
laminated sheets of steel .

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 Real Transformer
Equivalent circuit
 Equivalent Circuit of a Two-winding, 1-phase, Transformer
 Rc => core loss component
 Xm => magnetization component
 Rp and Xp are resistance and reactance of the primary winding
 Rs and Xs are resistance and reactance of the secondary winding

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Real Transformer

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Real Transformer
Equivalent Circuit - seen from primary side

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 Real Transformer
Approximate Simplified Equivalent Circuit -
seen from primary side

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 Real Transformer
 In this model, the parameters from secondary are transferred to
primary side.
 Rep= Rp+ a2Rs
 Xep=Xpa2Rs
 where, Rep and Xep are equivalent resistance and reactance from
primary

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 Real Transformer
Equivalent circuit parameters
 Open circuit test: Secondary (normally
the HV winding) is open, that means
there is no load across secondary
terminals; hence there is no current in
the secondary.
 Winding losses are negligible, and the
source mainly supplies the core losses,
Pcore
 Parameters obtained: Test is done at
rated voltage with secondary open. So,
the ammeter reads the no-load current,
Io; the wattmeter reads the core losses,
and the voltmeter reads the applied
primary voltage.

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Real Transformer

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Real Transformer

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 Three phase transformers

 The three-phase transformer can be built by:

 the interconnection of three single-phase transformers
 using an iron core with three limbs
 The usual connections for three-phase transformers are:
 wye / wye: seldom used, unbalance and 3th harmonics
problem
 wye / delta: frequently used step down.(230 kV/66 kV)
 delta / delta: used medium voltage (15 kV)
 delta / wye: step up transformer in a generation station
 For most cases the neutral point is grounded.

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Three phase transformers
 the interconnection of three single-phase transformers

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 Three phase transformers

 The three-phase transformer can be built by:

 the interconnection of three single-phase transformers
 using an iron core with three limbs
 The usual connections for three-phase transformers are:
 wye / wye: seldom used, unbalance and 3th harmonics
problem
 wye / delta: frequently used step down.(230 kV/66 kV)
 delta / delta: used medium voltage (15 kV)
 delta / wye: step up transformer in a generation station
 For most cases the neutral point is grounded.

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 Three phase transformers
 Another construction is where all
the three phases are on the
same iron structure.
 Each leg has a primary and a
secondary winding.
 The phases of a Wye-delta or delta-
delta transformer can be labeled so
there is no phase shift between
corresponding quantities on the
low- and high-voltage windings.
 However, in either a wye-delta or
delta-wye transformer, positive
sequence on the high-voltage side
shall lead their corresponding
quantities on the LV side by 30.

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 Three phase transformers
 Wiring diagrams for Y -Y transformer.

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 Three phase transformers
 Wiring diagrams for Y -Y transformer.

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Three phase transformers

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Three phase transformers

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 Synchronous Generator
Synchronous Machines:
 A synchronous machine is an ac machine whose speed under steady-state
conditions is proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature. The
rotor, along with the magnetic field created by the dc field current on the rotor,
rotates at the same speed as, or in synchronism with, the rotating magnetic field
produced by the armature currents

 Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical energy.

 Synchronous Motors: Used as motors as well as power factor compensators
(synchronous condensers).
Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
 Induction Motors:
 Most widely used electrical motors in both domestic and industrial applications.
 Induction Generators:
 Due to lack of a separate field excitation, these machines are rarely used as
generators.

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 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Round Rotor Machine
 The stator is a ring
shaped laminated iron-
core with slots.
 Three phase windings
are placed in the slots.
 Round solid iron rotor
with slots.
 A single winding is
placed in the slots. DC
current is supplied
through slip rings.

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 Picture to the
right shows a
Round Rotor
Synchronous
Machine

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 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Salient Rotor Machine
 The stator has a
laminated iron-core with
slots and three phase
windings placed in the
slots.
 The rotor has salient
poles excited by dc
current.
 DC current is supplied to
the rotor through slip-
rings and brushes.

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Salient Rotor Machine

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SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

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Equivalent Circuit Synchronous
Generators(round rotor)

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Synchronous Generators
Equivalent Circuit (round rotor)

 The voltage at the terminals of Phase A

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Synchronous Generators
Equivalent Circuit (round rotor)

 Where δ is called the power angle

 The power supplied by
synchronous generator
is given by

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 Load Model
Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and the load
characteristics
 Constant impedance, Z load
 Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to a network node and
the ground (or neutral point of the system)
 Constant current, I load
 The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a constant power factor,
independent of the nodal voltage Also considered as a current injection into
the network
 Constant power, S load
 The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power component
independent of nodal voltage or current injection Also considered as a
negative power injection into the network
46
 THE SINGLE-LINE OR ONE-LINE
DIAGRAM
 A major portion of the modern power system utilizes three-
phase as circuits and devices.
 A balanced three-phase system is solved as a single-
phase circuit made of one line and the neutral return.
Often the diagram is simplified further by omitting the
completed circuit through the neutral and by indicating
the component parts by standard symbols rather than
by their equivalent circuits.
 The simplified one-line diagram is called the single-line
diagram.
 It indicates by a single line and standard symbols how
the transmission lines and associated apparatus of an
electric system are connected together.

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THE SINGLE-LINE OR ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
 The purpose of the one-line diagram is to supply in
concise form the significant information about the system.
 The importance of different features of a system varies with
the problem under consideration, and the amount of
information included on the diagram depends on the
purpose for which the diagram is in tended. For instance:
 location of circuit breakers and relays is unimportant in making
a load study. Breakers and relays are not shown if the
primary function of the diagram is to provide information for
such a study.
 On the other hand, determination of the stability of a system
under transient conditions resulting from a fault depends on
the speed with which relays and circuit breakers operate to
isolate the faulted part of the system . Therefore, information
about the circuit breakers may be of extreme importance.
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THE SINGLE-LINE OR ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) have published a set of
standard symbols for electrical diagrams

49
THE SINGLE-LINE OR ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
 Using the symbols, a section of a one-line diagram of a power system is shown
in Figure below.

 Two generators, one grounded through a reactor and one through a resistor,
are

50
THE SINGLE-LINE OR ONE-LINE DIAGRAM

 In the above Single line diagram:

 Two generators, one grounded through a reactor and one
through a resistor, are connected to a bus and through
a step -up transformer to a transmission line.
 Another generator, grounded through a reactor, is
connected to a bus and through a transformer to the
opposite end of the trans mission line.
 A load is connected to each bus.
 On the diagram information about the loads, ratings of
the generators and transformers, and reactances of the
different components of the circuit is often given.

51
IMPEDANCE AND REACTANCE DIAGRAMS

 In order to calculate the performance or a system under load

conditions or upon the occurrence of a fault, the one-line
diagram is used to draw the single-phase per-phase
equivalent circuit of the system.
 In the impedance diagram the Equivalent circuits of these
components will be interconnected.
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with
an inductive reactance. The internal resistance of the generator is
negligible compared to the reactance.
2. The motor load is inductive.
3. The static load has a lagging power factor.
4. A transformer is represented by a series impedance on a per phase basis.
5. The transmission line can be represented by a T or Pi section.
 Impedance diagram is used for power-flow studies.
52
IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

53
 REACTANCE DIAGRAM
 Resistance is often omitted when making fault calculations,
even in computer programs.
 Lo ads which do not involve rotating machinery have little effect
on the total line current during a fault and are usually omitted.
 Syn­chronous motor loads, however, are al ways included in
making fault calculations since their generated emfs contribute to
the short-circuit current.
 If we decide to simplify our calculation of fault current by
omitting all static loads, all resistances, the shunt admittance of
each transformer, and the capacitance of the transmission line,
the impedance diagram reduces to the per-phase reactance
diagram.
 Reactance diagram is only used for fault(short-circuit)
calculations.

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REACTANCE DIAGRAM

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REACTANCE DIAGRAM


Fig: Reactance diagram developed by omitting all the

loads, resistances, and shunt admittances

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 Per Unit System

 Power transmission lines are operated at voltage levels

kilovolt(KV)where
 In the per-unit (pu) notation, any electrical quantity may be
expressed in pu as the ratio of the actual quantity and the
chosen base value for the quantity expressed either in decimal
form or percent.
 Four basic quantities must be considered, namely, power Sb,
voltage Vb, current Ib, and impedance Zb.
 In single phase systems, the relationships among these
quantities are

Sb  Vb I b Vb  I b Z b
 With only two equations relating the four basic quantities, it is
necessary to specify two base values.
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…CONT.
 The power and voltage bases are usually chosen equal to the
rated value and the other two are computed from the basic
relations as follows.
2
S V V ( KVb ) 2
Ib  b Zb  b  b 
Vb Ib Sb MVAb

 The specified power base is applicable to all parts of the power

system.
 The voltage base varies across a transformer and so is the
current base and impedance base. The per unit (pu) electrical
quantities are calculated as follows:
V
P  jQ V pu 
S pu   Ppu  jQ pu Vb
Sb
I Z
I pu  Z pu 
Ib Zb
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 …Cont.
 It can be seen by inspection of any power system diagram that:
 Several voltage levels exist in a system
 It is common practice to refer to plant MVA in terms of per unit
or percentage values
 Transmission line and cable constants are given in ohms/km.
 Before any system calculation can take place, the system
parameters must be referred to ‘base quantities’ and represented as
a unified system of impedances in the either ohmic, percentage, or
per unit values.
 The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally, they are given
in terms of the three-phase power in MVA and the line voltage in kV.
The base impedance resulting from the above base quantities is:

( KVb ) 2
Zb 
MVAb
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…CONT.
 provided the system is balanced, the base impedance may be
calculated using either single-phase or three-phase quantities.
 The per unit or percentage value of any impedance in the
system is the ratio of actual to base impedance values.
 Hence: Z () Z () (kV ) 2
Z ( pu )   2
 Z ()  b
Zb (kVb ) MVAb
MVAb
Z (%)  Z ( pu )  100
 Where
 where, MVAb = base MVA
 kVb = base kV

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…CONT.
 Real power systems are convenient to analyze using their
per-phase (since the system is three-phase) per-unit
(since there are many transformers) equivalent circuits.
The per-phase base voltage, current, apparent power, and
impedance are

 
2
S3 ,base VLN ,base V
I base  Z base  
LN ,base

3VLL ,base I base S1 ,base

 In the per-unit system, all quantities are represented as a

fraction of the base value:
actualvalue
Quantityin per  unit
basevalueof quantity

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 …CONT.
 If any two of the four base quantities are specified, the other
base values can be calculated.
 Usually, base apparent power and base voltage are specified
at a point in the circuit, and the other values are calculated
from them.
 The base voltage varies by the voltage ratio of each
transformer in the circuit but the base apparent power stays
the same through the circuit.
 The per-unit impedance may be transformed from one base
to another as:
2
 Vold   S new 
Per  unitZ new  per  unitZ old    
V S
 new   old 
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 …CONT.
 Example 1: a power system consists of one synchronous
generator and one synchronous motor connected by two
transformers and a transmission line. Create a per-phase, per-
unit equivalent circuit of this power system using a base apparent
power of 100 MVA and a base line voltage of the generator G1 of
13.8 kV. Given that:
 G1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, X s = 0.9 pu;

 T1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8/110 kV, R = 0.01 pu, X s = 0.05 pu;

 T2 ratings: 50 MVA, 120/14.4 kV, R = 0.01 pu, X s = 0.05 pu;

 M ratings: 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, X s = 1.1 pu;

 L1 impedance: R = 15 , X = 75 .
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…CONT.

 To create a per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit, we need

first to calculate the impedances of each component in the
power system in per-unit to the system base. The system
base apparent power is Sbase = 100 MVA everywhere in the
 power system. The base voltage in the three regions will
vary as the voltage ratios of the transformers that delineate
the regions. These base voltages are:
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…CONT.
Vbase ,1  13.8kV Region 1
110
Vbase ,2  Vbase ,1  110kV Region 2
13.8
14.4
Vbase ,3  Vbase ,2  13.2kV Region 2
120
The corresponding base impedances in each region are:
 13.8kV 
2
VLL ,base 2
Z base ,1    1.904Region1
S3 ,base 100MVA
 110kV 
2
VLL ,base 2
Z base ,2    121Region1
S3 ,base 100MVA
 13.2kV 
2
VLL ,base 2
Z base ,3    1.743Region1
S3 ,base 100MVA

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…CONT.
 The impedances of G1 and T1 are specified in per-unit on a
base of 13.8 kV and 100 MVA, which is the same as the
system base in Region 1. Therefore, the per-unit
resistances and reactance of these components on the
system base are unchanged:
RG1,pu = 0.1 per unit
XG1,pu = 0.9 per unit
RT1,pu = 0.01 per unit
XT1,pu = 0.05 per unit
 There is a transmission line in Region 2 of the power system.
The impedance of the line is specified in ohms, and the base
impedance in that region is 121 . Therefore, the per-unit
resistance and reactance of the transmission line are:
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…CONT.
15
Rline , system   0.124 perunit
121
75
X line , system   0.620 perunit
121
 The impedance of T2 is specified in per-unit on a base of
14.4 kV and 50 MVA in Region 3. Therefore, the per-unit
resistances and reactances of this component on the
system base are:
per  unitZ new  per  unitZ given  Vgiven Vnew  S S given 
2
new

RT 2, pu  0.01 14.4 13.2   100 50   0.238 perunit

2

X T 2, pu  0.05  14.4 13.2   100 50   0.119 perunit

2

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…CONT.
 The impedance of M2 is specified in per-unit on a base of
13.8 kV and 50 MVA in Region 3. Therefore, the per-unit
resistances and reactance of this component on the
system base are:
per  unitZ new  per  unitZ given  Vgiven Vnew  S S given 
2
new

RM 2, pu  0.1 14.8 13.2   100 50   0.219 perunit

2

X M 2, pu  1.1 14.8 13.2   100 50   2.405 perunit

2

 There fore, the per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit of

this power system is shown:

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…CONT.

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