Chapter 2

CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER SYSTEM
2.1 MEMORY SYSTEMS
1 Compilied By Bisrat k. 12/28/2021

Computer System
 A computer system consists of a processor, memory, I/O, and
the interconnections among these major components.
 The functional behavior of the system consists of the exchange
of data and control signals among these components.
 To support this exchange these components must be
interconnected.

Computer Components

Computer Component
 Virtually all contemporary computer designs are based on

concepts referred to as von Neumann architecture.
 Von Neumann architecture is based on three key concepts.
 Data and instructions are stored in a single read-write
memory.
 Contents of this memory are addressable by location, without
regard to the type of data contained there.
 Execution occurs in a sequential fashion from one instruction
to the next.

Computer Component
 CPU exchanges data with memory. For this purpose, it typically
makes use of two internal registers:
 A memory address register (MAR), which specifies the address
in memory for the next read or write.
 A memory buffer register (MBR), which contains the data to be
written into memory or receives the data read from memory.
 Similarly, an I/O address register(I/OAR) specifies a particular
I/O device.
 An I/O buffer (I/OBR) register is used for the exchange of data
between an I/O module and the CPU.
 An I/O module transfers data from external devices to CPU and
memory, and vice versa.

Computer Function
 The basic function performed by a computer is execution of a
program
 Which consists of a set of instructions stored in memory.
 In its simplest form, instruction processing consists of two
steps:
1. The processor reads (fetches) instructions from memory
one at a time and
2. executes each instruction.
 Program execution consists of repeating the process of
instruction fetch and instruction execution.
 The processor required for a single instruction is called an
instruction cycle.

Computer Function
At the beginning of each instruction cycle, the processor
fetches an instruction from memory.
 In a typical processor, a register called the program counter
(PC) holds the address of the instruction to be fetched next.
The processor always increments the PC after each instruction
fetch so that it will fetch the next instruction in sequence.
 The fetched instruction is loaded into a register in the
processor known as the instruction register (IR).
 The instruction contains bits that specify the action the
processor is to take.
The processor interprets the instruction and performs the
required action.

Computer Function
 Virtually all computers provide mechanism by which other
modules (I/O, memory) may interrupt normal processing of
processor.
 Interrupts are provided primarily as a way to improve processing
efficiency.
 The most common classes of interrupts:
 Program: Occurs as a result of an instruction execution, such as
arithmetic overflow, division by zero, etc.
 Timer: Generated by a timer within the processor and allows the
operating system to perform certain functions on a regular basis.
 I/O: Generated by an I/O controller, to signal normal completion of an
operation or to signal a variety of error conditions.
 Hardware failure: Generated by a failure such as power failure or memory
parity error.

Computer Function
 From the point of view of the user program, an interrupt is just
an interruption of the normal sequence of execution.
 When the interrupt processing is completed, execution resumes.
 To accommodate interrupts, an interrupt cycle is added to the
instruction cycle.
 In the interrupt cycle, the processor checks to see if any
interrupts have occurred, indicated by the presence of an
interrupt signal.
 If no interrupts are pending, the processor proceeds to the fetch
cycle and fetches the next instruction of the current program.

Computer Function
 If an interrupt is pending, the processor does the following:
 It suspends execution of the current program being executed
and saves its context on the system stack – a special place in
memory.
 It sets the program counter to the starting address of an
interrupt handler routine.

Memory System
• No one technology is optimal in satisfying the memory
requirements for a computer system.
• As a consequence, the typical computer system is equipped with a
hierarchy of memory subsystems:
 Some internal to the system (directly accessible by the
processor) and
 Some external to the system (accessed by the processor via an
I/O module).

Memory System
 What do we need?
 A memory to store very large programs and to work at a speed
comparable to that of the CPU.
 The reality is:
 The larger a memory, the slower it will be;
 The faster a memory, the greater the cost per bit.
 A solution:
 To build a composite memory system which combines a small
and fast memory with a large and slow memory, and behaves,
most of the time, like a large and fast memory.
 This two-level principle can be extended to a hierarchy of
many levels.

Memory System
• Computer memory is organized into a hierarchy. At the highest
level (closest to the processor) are the processor registers.
• Next comes one or more levels of cache, When multiple levels
are used, they are denoted L1, L2, and so on.
• Next comes main memory, which is usually made out of
dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). All of these are
considered internal to the computer system.
• The hierarchy continues with external memory, with the next
level typically being a fixed hard disk, and one or more levels
below that consisting of removable media such as optical disks
and tape.

Memory System
 There are trade-offs between three key characteristics of
memory: cost, capacity, and access time. The following
relationship holds:
 Faster access time ---greater cost per bit
 Greater capacity --- less cost per bit
Greater capacity ---slower access time
 The dilemma facing the designer is clear. The designer
would like to use memory technologies that provide for
large-capacity memory, both because the capacity is needed
and because the cost per bit is low.


Memory hierarchy
 The design constraints on a computer’s memory can be summed
up by three questions:
How much?
 How fast?
How expensive?
 As might be expected, there is a trade-off among the three key
characteristics of memory: namely,
Capacity
access time
cost.

Memory hierarchy…
 A variety of technologies are used to implement memory
systems, and across this spectrum of technologies, the following
relationships hold:
 Faster access time, greater cost per bit
 Greater capacity, smaller cost per bit
 Greater capacity, slower access time
 As one goes down the hierarchy, the following occur:
Decreasing cost per bit
 Increasing capacity
 Increasing access time
Decreasing frequency of access of the memory by the
processor

Memory Hierarchy - Diagram

Hierarchy List
 Registers
 L1 Cache
 L2 Cache
 Main memory
 Disk
 Optical
 Tape

Access methods
 Sequential
Startat the beginning and read through in order
Access time depends on location of data and previous
location
e.g. tape
 Direct
Individual blocks have unique address
Access is by jumping to vicinity plus sequential search
Access time depends on location and previous location
e.g. disk

Access method …
 Random
Individual addresses identify locations exactly
Access time is independent of location or previous access
e.g. RAM
 Associative
Data is located by a comparison with contents of a portion
of the store
Access time is independent of location or previous access
e.g. cache

Memory classification
Semi conductor Maim memory
Nowadays, the use of semiconductor chips for main memory is
almost universal.
Organization
 The basic element of a semiconductor memory is the
memory cell.
 Although a variety of electronic technologies are used, all
semiconductor memory cells share certain properties:
 Exhibit 2 stable (or semi-stable) states which can represent
binary 1 or 0.
 Capable of being written into (at least once) to set states.
 Capable of being read to sense states.

Cont…
Organization
 Most commonly cell has three functional terminals capable of
carrying an electrical signal.
 Select terminal: Selects a memory cell for a read or write
operation.
 Control terminal: Indicates read or write.
 Other terminal: For writing, it provides an electrical sign
al that sets state of cell to 1 or 0. For reading, it is used for
output of cell’s state.

Cont…
Main memory:
 Memory is the workspace for the computer’s processor.
 It holds the instructions that the processor executes and the data
that those instructions work with.
 It is a temporary storage area where the programs and data being
operated on by the processor must reside.
 Memory storage is considered temporary because the data and
programs remain there only as long as the computer has electrical
power or is not reset.
 When we talk about a computer’s memory, we usually mean the
RAM or physical memory in the system, which is mainly the
memory chips or modules the processor uses to store primary
active programs and data.

Cont…
 Physically, the main memory in a system is a collection of chips
or modules containing chips that are usually plugged into the
motherboard.
 These chips or modules vary in their electrical and physical
designs and must be compatible with the system into which they
are being installed to function properly.
 Three main memory plays a significant role in the following
important aspects of your computer system:
 Performance
 Software Support
 Reliability and Stability
 Upgradability

Cont…
1. RAM (random access memory)
 Holds data and instructions used by CPU
 Volatile (unlike ROM, the contents of RAM are lost when the
power is turned off).
 RAM is also sometimes called read-write memory or RWM.
 RAM is much faster than ROM.
 RAM is stored in modules: DIMMs, RIMMs, SIMMs
 There are many different types of RAMs:
 static RAM (SRAM) and
 dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Memory cache is made up of SRAM (it is faster)

Cont…
 One distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is possible
both to read data from the memory and to write new data into the
memory easily and rapidly.
 Both the reading and writing are accomplished through the use
of electrical signals.
 The other distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is
volatile. A RAM must be provided with a constant power supply.
If the power is interrupted, then the data are lost.
 Thus, RAM can be used only as temporary storage. The two
traditional forms of RAM used in computers are DRAM and
SRAM.

Static RAM
 It holds its data without external refresh, for as long as power is supplied
to the circuit.
 SRAM is much faster than DRAM and much more capable of keeping
pace with modern processors.
 SRAM memory is available in access times of 2ns or less, so it can keep
pace with processors running 500MHz or faster.
 SRAMs are much lower in density(SRAM chips are physically larger
and store fewer bits overall) and much more expensive than DRAMs,
 SRAM is up to 30 times larger physically and up to 30 times more
expensive than DRAM.
 SRAM is manufactured in a way rather similar to how processors are:
highly-integrated transistor patterns photo-etched into silicon.
 Each SRAM bit is comprised of between four and six transistors, which
is why SRAM takes up much more space compared to DRAM, which
uses only one (plus a capacitor).
Strength and Weakness of SRAM
 Strengths:
Simplicity: SRAMs don't require external refresh circuitry or
other work in order for them to keep their data intact.
Speed: SRAM is faster than DRAM.
 Weaknesses:
Cost: SRAM is several times more expensive than DRAM.
Size: SRAMs take up much more space than DRAMs.
 Cache memory is a type of SRAM memory, which can run fast
enough to match the CPU,
 Three types: L1,L2,L3(L1 is the fastest)

Dynamic RAM
 Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that only holds its data if it is
continuously accessed by special logic called a refresh circuit.
 The memory cells in a DRAM chip are tiny capacitors that retain a
charge to indicate a bit.
 DRAM must be constantly refreshed; otherwise, the electrical
charges in the individual memory capacitors will drain and the data
will be lost even if it continues to have power supplied to it.
 Refresh occurs when the system memory controller takes a tiny
break and accesses all the rows of data in the memory chips.
 Refreshing the memory takes processor time away from other
tasks because each refresh cycle takes several CPU cycles to
complete.
 DRAMs use only one transistor and capacitor pair per bit, which
makes them very dense, offering more memory capacity per chip
29 than otherBytypes
Compilied Bisrat k.of memory. 12/28/2021
Cont…
 The transistor for each DRAM bit cell reads the charge state of the
adjacent capacitor.
 If the capacitor is charged, the cell is read to contain a 1; no charge
indicates a 0.
 The charge in the tiny capacitors is constantly draining, which is
why the memory must be refreshed constantly.
 The problem with capacitors is that they only hold a charge for a
short period of time, and then it fades away.
 DRAMs are inexpensive, slow and the chips can be densely
packed, so a lot of memory capacity can fit in a small space.
 Currently, DRAM chips are available with densities of up to 1Gb or
more. This means that DRAM chips are available with one billion
or more transistors!

SRAM vs. DRAM
 Both static and dynamic RAMs are volatile; that is, power must be
continuously supplied to the memory to preserve the bit values.
 A dynamic memory cell is simpler and smaller than a static memory
cell. Thus, a DRAM is more dense (smaller cells means more cells
per unit area) and less expensive than a corresponding SRAM.
 On the other hand, a DRAM requires the supporting refresh
circuitry. For larger memories, the fixed cost of the refresh circuitry
is more than compensated for by the smaller variable cost of DRAM
cells. Thus, DRAMs tend to be favored for large memory requirements.
 A final point is that SRAMs are generally somewhat faster than
DRAMs. Because of these relative characteristics, SRAM is used
for cache memory (both on and off chip), and DRAM is used for
main memory.
2. ROM (Read-Only- Memory
 Is a type of memory that can permanently or semi-permanently
store data.
 Non-volatile (retains data after PC is turned off)
 The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides a measure
of security against accidental (or malicious) changes to its
contents.
 ROM is an ideal place to put the PC’s startup instruction. i.e. the
software that boots the system.
 The main ROM BIOS is contained in a ROM chip on the
motherboard, but there are also adapter cards with ROMs on
them as well.
 ROMs on adapter cards contain auxiliary BIOS routines and
drivers needed by the particular card, especially for those cards
that must be active early in the boot process, such as video cards.
ROM Types
A. ROM: is designed to perform a specific function and cannot be
changed.
This is inflexible and so regular ROMs are only used generally
for programs that are static (not changing often) and mass-
produced.
B. Programmable ROM (PROM): can be programmed using
special equipment; it can be written to, but only once.
 The writing process is performed electrically and may be
performed by a supplier or customer at a time later than the
original chip fabrication.
 Special equipment is required for the writing process.
 PROMs provide flexibility and convenience.

Cont…
C. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): is
ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed under software
control.
 This is the most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly
used for holding BIOS programs.
 When you hear reference to a flash BIOS or doing a BIOS
upgrade by "flashing", this refers to reprogramming the BIOS
EEPROM with a special software program.
 Any location can be read from ROM in any order, so it is random
access as well.
 Finally, one other characteristic of ROM, compared to RAM, is that
it is much slower, typically having double the access time of RAM
or more.

Cont…
D. Flash Memory
 Gets its name because the microchip is organized so that a
section of memory cells are erased in a single action (flash).
 First introduced in the mid-1980s.
 Flash memory is intermediate between EPROM and
EEPROM in both cost and functionality.
 Like EEPROM, flash memory uses an electrical erasing
technology. An entire flash memory can be erased in one or
a few seconds, which is much faster than EPROM.
 In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of memory
rather than an entire chip. However, flash memory does not
provide byte-level erasure.

Cont…
E. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
 EPROM is read and written electrically, as with PROM.
 However, before a write operation, all the storage cells must
be erased to the same initial state by exposure of the
packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation.
 Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined through this
window for a specified period of time, which will erase the
EPROM and allow it to be reprogrammed again
 This erasure process can be performed repeatedly; each
erasure can take as much as 20 minutes to perform.
 Thus, the EPROM can be altered multiple times and holds
its data virtually indefinitely.
 EPROM is more expensive than PROM.
Cache Memory
 Cache: A small, very fast, memory used to store data and
instructions, that have recently been used or are likely to be used
soon.
 When a byte of memory is retrieved by the Memory
Management Unit (MMU), a copy of that byte and a number of
other nearby bytes are placed in the cache.
 Sits between normal main memory and CPU

Cache memory levels
 Modern systems often contain several levels of cache:
 L1 Cache:
 On the CPU chip.
 Smallest and fastest cache.
 L2 Cache:
 Larger and slower than L1 cache.
 L3 Cache:
 Larger and slower than L2 cache.

Element of Cache design
 There are a few basic design elements that serve to classify and
differentiate cache architectures:

Cont…

Mapping
 The transfer of data from main memory to cache memory is
referred as mapping process.
 There are three types of cache mapping:
1. Direct Mapping: maps each block of main memory into only one
possible cache line.
2. Fully Associative Mapping: permits each main memory block to
be loaded into any line of the cache.
3. Set Associative Mapping: the cache is divided into a number of
sets of cache lines; each main memory block can be mapped into
ant line in a particular set.

Direct Mapping
 Maps each block of main memory into only one possible
cache line.
Mapping is expressed as
i = j modulo m
where i = cache line number
j = main memory block number
m = number of lines in cache


Cont…
 In direct mapping, 24 bit memory address contains:
 2 bit word identifier
 22 bit block identifier
8 bit tag
14 bit line no

Cont…

Fully associative mapping
 Allows each memory block to be loaded into any line of cache. In
this case, the cache control logic interprets a memory address simply
as a tag and a word field.
 Tag uniquely identifies a block of main memory. To determine
whether a block is in cache, cache control logic must simultaneously
examine every line’s tag for a match.
 It requires fully associative memory. Implementation is
expensive and has very complex circuitry.

Cont…
 In associative mapping, a 24 bit memory address consists of
2 bit word
22 bit tag


Set associative mapping
 Compromise between direct and associative mappings to
reduce their disadvantages. Cache is divided into v sets,
each of which
consists k lines.
m = v × k
i = j modulo v
 where i = cache set number
j = main memory block number
m = number of lines in cache
 So a given block will map directly to a particular set, but
can occupy any line in that set (associative mapping is used
within set).

Cont…
 In set associative mapping, a 24 bit memory address consists of:
9 bit tag
13 bit set (identifies a unique set of lines within cache)
2 bit word

Replacement algorithms
• When all lines are occupied bringing in a new block requires that an
existing line be overwritten.
• There are four most common algorithms:
1. Least-recently-used (LRU): The idea is to replace that block in set
which has been in cache longest with no reference to it.
2. First-in-first-out (FIFO): The idea is to replace that block in set
which has been in cache longest.
3. Least-frequently-used (LFU): The idea is to replace that block in
set which has experienced fewest references.
4. Random: The idea is to replace a random block in set.

Write Policy
 The problem:
 How to keep cache content and main memory content
consistent without losing too much performance?
 The are mostly two techniques to overcome these problems:
 Write through:
 All write operations are passed to main memory:
If the addressed location is currently in the cache, the cache is
updated so that it is coherent with the main memory.
 Write back:
 Write operations update only the cache memory which is not
kept coherent with main memory. When the slot is replaced from
the cache, its content has to be copied back to memory.

Secondary memory
 Figure. Hard disk construction and Operation

Secondary memory…
 Disk storage:-
 Disks are workhorse storage devices that hold enormous amounts
of data.
 Disk Geometry:-
 Disks are constructed from platters. Each platter consists of two
sides, or surfaces, that are coated with magnetic recording
material.
 A rotating spindle in the center of the platter spins the platter at a
fixed rotational rate, typically between 5400 and 15,000
revolutions per minute (RPM).

Cont…
 Each surface consists of a collection of concentric
rings called tracks.
 Each track is partitioned into a collection of sectors.
 Each sector contains an equal number of data bits (typically 512
bytes) encoded in the magnetic material on the sector.
 Sectors are separated by gaps where no data bits are stored.
 Gaps store formatting bits that identify sectors.

Cont…
Disk geometry

Cont…
 Disk manufacturers describe the geometry of multiple-platter
drives in terms of cylinders, where a cylinder is the collection of
tracks on all the surfaces that are equidistant from the center of the
spindle.
 For example, if a drive has three platters and six surfaces, and the
tracks on each surface are numbered consistently, then cylinder k
is the collection of the six instances of track k.

Disk Capacity
 The maximum number of bits that can be recorded by a disk is
known as its maximum capacity, or simply capacity.
 Disk capacity is determined by the following technology factors:
 Recording density (bits/in): The number of bits that can be
squeezed into a 1-inch segment of a track.
 Track density (tracks/in): The number of tracks that can be
squeezed into a 1-inch segment of the radius extending from the
center of the platter.

Cont…
 Areal density (bits/in2): The product of the recording density and
the track density.
 The capacity of a disk is given by the following formula:

Disk Operation
 Disks read and write bits stored on the magnetic surface using a
read/write head connected to the end of an actuator arm.
 By moving the arm back and forth along its radial axis, the drive
can position the head over any track on the surface. This
mechanical motion is known as a seek.

Cont…

Cont…
Platters
 Multiple-platter disks employ a movable head, with one read-
write head per platter surface. All of the
heads are mechanically fixed so that all are at the same distance
from the center of the disk and move together.
Thus, at any time, all of the heads are positioned over tracks that
are of equal distance from the center of the disk.
 Single-platter disks employ only a single platter.

Cont…
 Disks read and write data in sector-sized blocks.
 The access time for a sector has three main components:
 seek time,
 rotational latency
 transfer time:

Input Output System

Introduction
 The computer system’s I/O architecture is its interface to the
outside world.
 This architecture provides a systematic means of controlling
interaction with the outside world and provides the operating
system with the information it needs to manage I/O activity
effectively.
 The are three principal I/O techniques:
programmed I/O
 interrupt-driven I/O
 direct memory access (DMA)

Introduction…
 programmed I/O, in which I/O occurs under the direct and
continuous control of the program requesting the I/O operation.
 interrupt-driven I/O, in which a program issues an I/O
command and then continues to execute, until it is interrupted by
the I/O hardware to signal the end of the I/O operation.
 direct memory access (DMA), in which a specialized I/O
processor takes over control of an I/O operation to move a large
block of data.
 Two important examples of external I/O interfaces are:
FireWire
Infiniband.

Input output devices
 There are a wide variety of peripherals with various methods of
operation.
 It would be impractical to incorporate the necessary logic within
the processor to control a range of devices.
 The data transfer rate of peripherals is often much slower than
that of the memory or processor.
 Thus, it is impractical to use the high-speed system bus to
communicate directly with a peripheral.

Cont…
On the other hand, the data transfer rate of some peripherals
is faster than that of the memory or processor.
 Again, the mismatch would lead to inefficiencies if not
managed properly.
Peripherals often use different data formats and word lengths
than the computer to which they are attached.

Purpose of I/O Modules
Interface to the processor and memory via the system bus or
control switch.
 Interface to one or more peripheral devices.

External Devices
An external device connected to an I/O module is often
referred to as a peripheral device or, simply, a peripheral.
External device categories into three:
Human readable: communicate with the computer user –
VDT, printers etc.
Machine readable: communicate with equipment – disk
drive or tape drive
Communication: communicate with remote devices – may
be human readable or machine readable

The External Device – I/O Module
 The interface to the I/O module is in the form of control, data,
and status signals.
 Control signals determine the function that the device will
perform, such as send data to the I/O module (INPUT or
READ), accept data from the I/O module (OUTPUT or WRITE),
report status, or perform some control function particular to the
device (e.g., position a disk head).
 Data are in the form of a set of bits to be sent to or received
from the I/O module.
 Status signals indicate the state of the device. Examples are
READY/NOT-READY to show whether the device is ready for
data transfer.

Cont…
 Control logic associated with the device controls the device’s
operation in response to direction from the I/O module.
 The transducer converts data from electrical to other forms of
energy during output and from other forms to electrical during
input.
 Typically, a buffer is associated with the transducer to temporarily
hold data being transferred between the I/O module and the
external environment.

Block Diagram of an External Device

I/O modules function
 The major functions or requirements for an I/O module fallinto
the following categories:
Control and timing: Coordinates flow of traffic between internal
resources and external devices.
 Processor communication involves following:
Command decoding: I/O module accepts commands
from CPU typically sent as signals on control bus (e.g. READ
sector, WRITE sector, SEEK track number).
Data: Data are exchanged between CPU and I/O module over data
bus.

Cont…
Status reporting: Used to know status of I/O module. Common
status signals are BUSY and READY.
Address recognition: An I/O module must recognize one unique address
for each peripheral it controls.
Device communication: On the other side of I/O module,
communication involves commands, status information and data.
Data buffering: Rate of data transfer to or from CPU is
orders of magnitude faster than to or from external devices.
I/O module buffers data so that peripheral can send or
receive at its rate and CPU can send or receive at its rate.
Error detection: I/O module must detect and correct or
report error that occur to CPU.
One class of errors includes mechanical and electrical
malfunctions reported by device (e.g. paper jam).
Another class includes data errors during transmission.
Keyboard/Monitor
 Most common means of computer/user interaction
 Keyboard provides input that is transmitted to the computer
 Monitor displays data provided by the computer
 The character is the basic unit of exchange
 Each character is associated with a 7 or 8 bit code

Disk Drive
 Contains electronics for exchanging data, control, and status
signals with an I/O module
 Contains electronics for controlling the disk read/write mechanism
 Fixed-head disk – transducer converts between magnetic patterns
on the disk surface and bits in the buffer
 Moving-head disk – must move the disk arm rapidly across the
surface

Interconnection Structures
 The collection of paths connecting the various modules is called
the Interconnection structure.
• Supports the following types of transfers:
• Memory to CPU: Processor reads an instruction or a unit of
data from memory.
• CPU to memory: Processor writes a unit of data to memory.
• I/O to CPU: Processor reads data from an I/O device.
• CPU to I/O: Processor sends data to an I/O device.
• I/O to or from memory: An I/O module is allowed to
exchange directly with memory, without going through
processor, using Direct Memory Access (DMA).
• The most common types of interconnection structure is the
BUS.

Bus Interconnection
 A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more
devices. A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared
transmission medium.
 Typically, a bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or
lines. Each line is capable of transmitting signals representing
binary 1 and binary 0.
 A bus that connects major computer components (processor,
memory, I/O) is called a system bus.

Bus Interconnection
 Bus Structure
 A system bus consists, typically, of from about 50 to hundreds of
separate lines. Each line is assigned a particular meaning or
function.
 Generally the bus has three functional groups: Data, address, and
control lines(bus).

Bus Interconnection
 Data lines: collectively are called the data bus.
 Transfers data from different computer system components
 the width of the data bus is a key factor in determining overall
system performance.
 Address lines: are used to designate the source or destination of the
data on the data bus.
 The width of the address bus determines the maximum possible
memory capacity of the system.
 Control lines: are used to control the access to and the use of the
data and address lines.
 Because the data and address lines are shared by all components,
there must be a means of controlling their use.

Bus Interconnection
 Typical control lines includes:
 Memory write: Causes data on the bus to be written into the
addressed location.
 Memory read: Causes data from the addressed location to be
placed on the bus.
 I/O write: Causes data on the bus to be output to the addressed
I/O port.
 I/O read: Causes data from the addressed I/O port to be placed
on the bus.
 Transfer ACK: Indicates that data have been accepted from or
placed on the bus.
 Bus request: Indicates that a module needs to gain control of
the bus.

Bus interconnection
 Bus grant: Indicates that a requesting module has been granted
control of the bus.
 Interrupt request: Indicates that an interrupt is pending.
 Interrupt ACK: Acknowledges that the pending interrupt has
been recognized.
 Clock: Is used to synchronize operations.
 Reset: Initializes all modules

Bus Interconnection
 The operation of the bus:
 If one module wishes to send data to another, it must do two
things:
 obtain the use of the bus
 transfer data via the bus
 If one module wishes to request data from another module, it
must:
 obtain the use of the bus
 transfer a request to the other module over the appropriate
control and address lines
 it must then wait for that second module to send the data

I/O Modules
 Module Functions are:
Control and timing
Processor communication
Device communication
Data buffering
Error detection

I/O control steps
 Processor checks I/O module for external device status
 I/O module returns status
 If device ready, processor gives I/O module command to request
data transfer
 I/O module gets a unit of data from device
 Data transferred from the I/O module to the processor

Processor communication
 Command decoding: I/O module accepts commands from the
processor sent as signals on the control bus. Examples: READ
SECTOR, WRITE SECTOR, SEEK track number, and SCAN
record ID.
 Data: data exchanged between the processor and I/O module over
the data bus
 Status reporting: common status signals BUSY and READY are
used because peripherals are slow
 Address recognition: I/O module must recognize a unique
address for each peripheral that it controls

I/O module communication
 Device communication: commands, status information, and data
 Data buffering: data comes from main memory in rapid burst and
must be buffered by the I/O module and then sent to the device at
the device’s rate
 Error detection: responsible for reporting errors to the processor.
They may include:
 Malfunctions by device (paper jam)
 Data errors (parity checking at the device level)
 Internal errors to the I/O module such as buffer overruns

Typical I/O Device Data Rates

I/O Module Structure
Block Diagram of an I/O Module

Cont…
 I/O module functions allow the processor to view devices is a
simple-minded way
 I/O module may hide device details from the processor so the
processor only functions in terms of simple read and write
operations – timing, formats, etc…
 I/O module may leave much of the work of controlling a device
visible to the processor – rewind a tape, etc…

I/O Techniques
 Programmed
 Interrupt driven
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Programmed I/O
 Processor executes an I/O instruction by issuing command to
appropriate I/O module
 I/O module performs the requested action and then sets the
appropriate bits in the I/O status register – I/O module takes not
further action to alert the processor – it does not interrupt the
processor
 The processor periodically checks the status of the I/O module
until it determines that the operation is complete

I/O Commands
 The processor issues an address, specifying I/O module and
device, and an I/O command. The commands are:
 Control: activate a peripheral and tell it what to do
 Test: test various status conditions associated with an I/O module
and its peripherals
 Read: causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from the
peripheral and place it into an internal register
 Write: causes the I/O module to take a unit of data from the data
bus and transmit it to the peripheral

Three Techniques for Input of a Block of Data

Interrupt-Driven I/O
Overcomes the processor having to wait long periods of time for I/O
modules
The processor does not have to repeatedly check the I/O module status
To avoid the processor being not performing an useful computation, a
hardware signal called an interrupt to the processor can do it.
 At least one of the bus control lines, called an interrupt-request line, is
usually dedicated for this purpose
An interrupt-service routine usually is needed and is executed when an
interrupt request is issued
 On the other hand, the processor must inform the device that its
request has been recognized so that it may remove its interrupt-request
signal.
An interrupt-acknowledge signal serves this function

Simple Interrupt Processing

I/O module view point
 I/O module receives a READ command form the processor
 I/O module reads data from desired peripheral into data register
 I/O module interrupts the processor
 I/O module waits until data is requested by the processor
 I/O module places data on the data bus when requested

Processor view point
 The processor issues a READ command
 The processor performs some other useful work
 The processor checks for interrupts at the end of the instruction
cycle
 The processor saves the current context when interrupted by the
I/O module
 The processor read the data from the I/O module and stores it in
memory
 The processor the restores the saved context and resumes
execution

Design Issues
 How does the processor determine which device issued the
interrupt
 How are multiple interrupts dealt with
 Device identification
 Multiple interrupt lines – each line may have multiple I/O
modules
 Software poll – poll each I/O module
 Separate command line – TESTI/O
 Processor read status register of I/O module
 Time consuming

Cont…
 Daisy chain
 Hardware poll
Common interrupt request line
Processor sends interrupt acknowledge
Requesting I/O module places a word of data on the data
lines – “vector” that uniquely identifies the I/O module –
vectored interrupt

Cont…
 Bus arbitration
I/O module first gains control of the bus
 I/O module sends interrupt request
The processor acknowledges the interrupt request
I/O module places its vector of the data lines

Cont…
 Multiple interrupts
 The techniques above not only identify the requesting I/O module
but provide methods of assigning priorities
 Multiple lines – processor picks line with highest priority
 Software polling – polling order determines priority
 Daisy chain – daisy chain order of the modules determines priority
 Bus arbitration – arbitration scheme determines priority

Direct Memory Access
 To transfer large blocks of data at high speed, a special control
unit may be provided between an external device and the main
memory, without continuous intervention by the processor.
 This approach is called direct memory access (DMA)
 DMA transfers are performed by a control circuit that is part of
the I/O device interface.
 We refer to this circuit as a DMA controller.

Direct Memory Access…
 Drawback of Programmed and Interrupt-Driven I/O
 I/O transfer rate limited to speed that processor can test and
service devices
 Processor tied up managing I/O transfers
 DMA Controller Function
 .DMA controller requests data bus control from CPU.
 CPU grants the data bus control to the DMA controller
 DMA controller reads device and writes to memory
 DMA controller generates an interrupt request

Typical DMA Block Diagram

I/O Interfaces
 The External Interface: FireWire and Infiniband
 Key to the operation of an I/O module is an internal buffer that
can store data being passed between the peripheral and the rest of
the system.
 With a new generation of high-speed serial interfaces, parallel
interfaces are becoming much less common.

I/O Interface
 One major characteristic of the interface is whether it is
serial or parallel.
 In a parallel interface, there are multiple lines connecting
the I/O module and the peripheral, and multiple bits are
transferred simultaneously.
 In a serial interface, there is only one line used to transmit
data, and bits must be transmitted one at a time.

Cont…
 The connection between an I/O module in a computer system
and external devices can be:
 A point-to-point interface provides a dedicated line
between the I/O module and the external device. On small
systems (PCs, workstations), typical point-to-point links
include those to the keyboard, printer and external modem.
 Of increasing importance are multipoint external interfaces,
used to support external mass storage devices (disk and
tape drives) and multimedia devices (CD-ROMs, video,
audio). These multipoint interfaces are in effect external buses.

Standard I/O Interfaces
 The processor bus is the bus defined by the signals on the
processor chip itself.
 Devices that require a very high speed connection to the
processor, such as the main memory, may be connected directly
to this bus
 The motherboard usually provides another bus that can support
more devices.
 The two buses are interconnected by a circuit, which we called a
bridge, that translates the signals and protocols of one bus into
those of the other
 The expansion bus is not subject to these limitations, and
therefore it can use a standardized signaling structure

Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 The USB has been designed to meet several key objectives
 Provide a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection
system that overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of
I/O ports available on a computer
 Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O
devices, including telephone and Internet connections
 Enhance user convenience through a “plug-and-play” mode of
operation

FireWire Serial Bus – IEEE 1394
 FireWire is a high-speed, low cost and easy to implement
serial bus.
 In fact, FireWire is finding favor not only for computer
systems, but also in consumer electronics products, such as
digital cameras, DVD players/recorders, and televisions.
 In these products, FireWire is used to transport video images,
which are increasingly coming from digitized sources.
 Very high speed serial bus
 Low cost
Easy to implement
Used with digital cameras, televisions etc.

Infiniband
 Recent I/O specification aimed at high-end server market
 First version released early 2001
 Standard for data flow between processors and intelligent I/O
devices
 Intended to replace PCI bus in servers
 Greater capacity, increased expandability, enhanced flexibility
 Connect servers, remote storage, network devices to central fabric
of switches and links

Cont…
Figure illustrates the InfiniBand architecture:

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CHAPTER TWO

2.1 MEMORY SYSTEMS

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 Virtually all contemporary computer designs are based on

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 Figure. Hard disk construction and Operation

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