Earthquake

Characteristics
Intensity scale of earthquake
The intensity of an earthquake is based on the
damage and other observed effects on people,
buildings and other features.
Intensity varies from place to place within the
disturbed region.
Large magnitude earthquake that occur beneath the
ocean may not even be felt by humans.
An earthquake in a densely populated area that results
in many deaths and considerable damage may
have the same magnitude as a shock in a remote
area that does nothing more than frighten the
wildlife.
An intensity scale consists of a series of responses,
such as people awakening,movement of furniture,
and damage to chimneys.
Intensity scale of earthquake(Contd…)
Numerous intensity scales have been developed, the
scale encountered most often in the United
States is the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale consists of 12
increasing levels of intensity(expressed as Roman
numerals following the initials MM) that range from
imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction.
The lower numbers of the intensity scales Large
magnitude earthquake that occur beneath the ocean
may not even be felt by humans.
The higher numbers are based on observed structural
damage.
The numbers do not have a mathematical basis and
therefore are more meaningful to nontechnical
people than to those in technical fields.
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
scale
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
I Not felt except by very few under especially
favourable conditions
II Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially
by those on upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may swing
III Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors,
especially in upper floors of buildings. Many
people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing vehicles may rock
slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a
truck. Duration estimated.
 Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
IV During the day, felt indoors by many, outdoors
by a few. At night, some awakened. Dishes,
windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking
sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some
dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects
overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy
furniture moved. A few instances of fallen
plaster. Damage slight.
 Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
VII Damage negligible in buildings of good
design and construction; slight to moderate in
well-built ordinary structures; considerable
damage in poorly-built structures. Some
chimneys broken.
VIII Damage slight in specially-designed
structures; considerable damage in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Damage great in poorly-built structures.
Fallen chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments, walls, heavy furniture
overturned.
 Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
IX Damage considerable in specially-designed
structures; well-designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb. Damage great in
substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Buildings shifted off foundations.
X Some well-built wooden structures destroyed;
most masonry and frame structures with
foundations destroyed. Rails bent.
XI Few, if any, masonry structures remain
standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent
greatly.
XII Damage total. Lines of sight and level are
distorted. Objects thrown into air.
Isoseismal maps
Maps showing regions of equal intensity of earthquake is called an
isoseismal map. This type of maps can be obtained by observation or,
in some cases, by questionnaires from residents of a locality after an
earthquake.
Richter magnitude scale
This scale was developed by Charles F.Richter of the
California Institute of technology in 1935.
This scale is used to measure the earthquake strength
or magnitude M.
 The magnitude on Richter scale is the logarithm of
the amplitude recorded by a seismometer. Adjustments
are included in the magnitude to compensate for the
variation in the distance between the various
seismometer and the epicenter.
Because the Richter magnitude is a logarithm scale,
each whole number increase in magnitude represents
a ten-fold increase in measured amplitude.
 Richter magnitude scale(Contd…)
Richter magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and
decimal fractions.
A magnitude of 5.3 correspond to moderate earthquake.
A strong earthquake might be rated at 7.3.Great
earthquake have magnitudes above 7.5. Earthquakes
with magnitudes 2.0 or less are known as microearth-
quakes, and these are rarely felt by people.
Several thousand seismic events with magnitudes of
approximately 4.5 or greater occur each year and have
little potential to cause structural damage.
The magnitude of an earthquake depends on the length
and breadth of the fault slip, as well as on the amount
of the slip.
Although the Richter scale has no lower or upper limit,
the largest known shocks have had magnitude 8.9
 Richter magnitude calculation
Richter scale magnitude is calculated from the
maximum amplitude ‘A’ of the seismometer trace.
 Richter magnitude calculation(contd…)
A0 is the seismometer reading produced by an
Earthquake of standard size (i.e., a calibration
earthquake). Generally A0 is 0.001 mm.
 A 
M  log10  
 A0 
This equation assumes that a distance of 100 km
separates the seismometer and the epicenter. For other
distances the nomograph and the following procedure
can be used to calculate the magnitude.
Due to lack of reliable information on the nature of the
Earth between the observation point and the
earthquake epicenter, an error of 10 to 40 km in locating
the epicenter is not unrealistic.
Richter magnitude correction nomograph
 Richter magnitude calculation(Contd…)
Step-1: Determine the time between the arrival of the
P- and S- waves
Step-2: Determine the maximum amplitude of the
oscillation.
Step-3: Connect the arrival time difference on the left
scale and the amplitude on the right scale with a straight
line.
Step-4: Read the Richter magnitude on the center scale.
Step-5: Read the distance separating the seismometer
and the epicenter from the left scale.
Note: One seismometer can determine the approximate
distance to the epicenter, it takes three seismometers to
determine and verify the location of the epicenter.
Energy release and magnitude correlation
Most of the relationships are of this general form.
log10 E  log10 E 0  aM
The relationship developed by Gutenberg and Richter
In 1956, is verified against data from underground
explosions.
log10 E  11 .8  1.5M
E is energy in ergs.

From the total energy released(the amount of which is

not known exactly) some is radiated(which is measured
by the above equation) and some is converted into heat
and other nonelastic effects.
Length of active fault
The following equation can be used for evaluating the
length of the fault L in kilometers, involved in an
earthquake.
log10 L  1.02M  5.77
Length of fault slip
The following equation can be used to correlate the
Richter magnitude M, the fault length L(in meters) and
the approximate length of vertical or horizontal fault
slip D(in meters)

 
log10 LD  10  1.90M  2.65
2 6
Peak ground acceleration(PGA)
Peak ground acceleration is one of the most important
Characteristics of an earthquake. PGA is measured by
A seismometer or accelerometer.
PGA is given is various units, ft/sec2, in/sec2, m/s2
The most common is express in “g’s” (i.e., as a fraction
Or percent of gravitational acceleration.
 a ft / sec2 
PGA     100%
 32.2 
 a in / sec2 
    100%
 386 
 a m / s2 
    100%
 9.81 
 Peak ground acceleration(PGA)(Contd…)
The following equation gives relationship between
Richter magnitude M and the PGA at the epicenter.

log10 PGA  2.1  0.81M  0.027M 2

As the ground acceleration decreases with the increase
in distance from epicenter, this equation is known as
attenuation equation.
Correlation with the Mercalli scale
The US Geological survey developed an Instrumental
Intensity scale which maps peak ground acceleration and peak
ground velocity on an intensity scale similar to the felt
Mercalli scale. These values are used to create shake maps by
seismologists around the world.
Acceleration Velocity Perceived Shaking Potential Damage
Instrumental (g) (cm/s)
Intensity
I < 0.0017 < 0.1 Not felt None
II-III 0.0017 - 0.014 0.1 - 1.1 Weak None
IV 0.014 - 0.039 1.1 - 3.4 Light None
V 0.039 - 0.092 3.4 - 8.1 Moderate Very light
VI 0.092 - 0.18 8.1 - 16 Strong Light
VII 0.18 - 0.34 16 - 31 Very strong Moderate
VIII 0.34 - 0.65 31 - 60 Severe Moderate to heavy
IX 0.65 - 1.24 60 - 116 Violent Heavy
X+ > 1.24 > 116 Extreme Very heavy
PGA PGA Mag Depth Fatalities Earthquake
single direction vector sum (H1, H2, V)

2.7g[8] 2.99 g[9][10] 9.0 30 km[11] >15000[12] 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

2.2g[13][14] 6.3[13] 5 km 185 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake

2.13g[13][15] 6.4 6 km 1 June 2011 Christchurch earthquake

4.36g[16] 6.9/7.2 8 km 12 2008 Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku earthquake

1.7g[17] 6.7 19 km 57 1994 Los Angeles earthquake

1.47g[18] 7.1 42km[11] 4 April 2011 Miyagi earthquake

1.26g[19][20] 7.1 10 km 0 2010 Canterbury earthquake

1.01g[21] 6.6 10 km 11 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake

1.01g[22] 7.3 8 km 2,415 1999 Jiji earthquake

1.0g[23] 6.0 8 km 0 December 2011 Christchurch earthquake

0.8g 6.8 16 km 6,434 1995 Kobe earthquake
0.78g[24] 8.8 23 km[25] 521 2010 Chile earthquake
0.6g[26] 6.0 10 km 143 1999 Athens earthquake
0.51g[27] 6.4 612 2005 Zarand earthquake
0.5g[17] 7.0 13 km 92,000-316,000 2010 Haiti earthquake
0.438g[28] 7.7 44 km 27 1978 Miyagi earthquake (Sendai)
0.367g[29] 5.2 1 km 9 2011 Lorca earthquake
0.25 - 0.3g[30] 9.5 33 km 1,655[31] 1960 Valdivia earthquake
0.24g[32] 6.4 628 2004 Morocco earthquake
0.18g[33] 9.2 23 km 143 1964 Alaska earthquake
Correlation of intensity, magnitude and acceleration
Some empirical relationships exist. No exact correlation
of intensity, magnitude and acceleration are possible
since many factors contribute to seismic behaviour and
structural performance.
For example, buildings in villages in undeveloped
countries fare much worse than high-rise buildings in
developed countries in earthquake of equal magnitudes.

Within a geographical region with consistent design and

construction methods, fairly good correlation exists
between structural performance and ground acceleration,
because the Mercalli intensity scale is based specifically
on observed damage.
Vertical acceleration
Shear waves can be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components and identified as SH-waves and
SV-wave respectively.
Vertical ground acceleration is known to occur in
almost all earthquakes. The peak vertical acceleration
is usually approximately one third of the peak
horizontal acceleration.
Forces from all three perpendicular directions combine
into a resultant force that can exceed the yield strength
of a member.
The current UBC seismic design code is generally
based on horizontal acceleration alone with the
assumption that horizontal seismic resistance will
automatically have adequate vertical seismic resistance
Probability of occurrence
The probability of an earthquake of magnitude M or
greater will occur in a specific region in any given year
M
is given by equation. 
p{M}  e B
B is a seismic parameter that is approximately
Determined
This type of equation can be derived through poisson
distribution which is commonly used to calculate the
probability of an infrequent event.
The expected number of earthquakes having
magnitude greater than M during Y years is given by
M

N  CYe B

The quantity N/Y is the expected number of earthquakes

per year.
Frequency of occurrence
An equation for the expected number N of earthquakes
of a given magnitude M will be of the form.

log10 N  a  bM

Taking the entire world as a whole, the approximate

relationship is

log10 N  7.7  0.9M

Attenuation of ground motion
Ground motion at a site is related to the seismic energy
received at that site, and when the propagation path is
through rock, the amount of energy decreases the
farther the site is from epicenter. This decrease is known
as attenuation.
Some of the factors affecting attenuation include path
line, path length, focal depth, geological formations,
properties of the crustal rock and orientation of the fault.
Note:
Intensity generally decreases with distance from the epicenter
There is little attenuation in the vicinity of the epicenter
Higher frequency components of the seismic wave attenuate
faster than slower component do.
Numerous relationships have been published for attenuation.
Seismometer
A seismometer is the detecting and recording parts of
a larger apparatus known as seismograph.
Seismometers are pendulum type of devices and are
mounted on the ground and measure the displacement
of the ground with respect to a stationary reference point.
Since a seismometer records the motion in only one
orthogonal direction, three seismometers are needed to
record all components of ground motion.
Seismic activity usually continues for some time after
the start of the earthquake, the major movement occurs
in a concentrated period known as strong phase. The
longer the earthquake shakes, the more seismic energy
is absorbed by buildings, thus the duration of
strong-phase shaking greatly affects the damage inflicted.
 Accelerometer
An accelerometer(accelerograph) is a seismometer
which records large accelerations, thus they are also
known as strong motion seismometer.

An accelerometer located in a building does not run

continually. It is triggered by a P-wave and runs for a
fixed period of time.

According to UBC, In buildings located in seismic

zone 3 and 4 with over 10 storeys in height or over 6
storeys and with total floor areas of 60,000 ft2 or more,
at least 3 approved accelerographs should be installed.
Other seismic instruments
A tiltmeter works on the same principle as a carpenter’s
level. The tilting of the ground is detected by the floating
bubble in a spherical dome which is electronically
detected
Magnetometer is used to determine the strain
(deformation) of rock under pressure. Strain changes
result in the change of magnetic field of the earth.
Strain gauge measure how much the earth deforms.
Dilatometer measures the earth’s dilations. A dilatometer
is a closed, fluid-filled tube approximately 3m long that is
buried in the ground. Changes in the earth’s “squeeze”
are detected and measured by a peressure sensor or
guage at the top of the tube.
 Other seismic instruments(contd…)
Scintillation counters are installed in wells to measure
amount of radioactive radon gas in the water. Minute
amounts of radon are released into well water by rocks
under stress.

Laser can measure the round-trip travel time of a light

beam between two points. When the relative positions of
the two points changes as a direct result of an
earthquake, the travel time also changes.
 Other seismic instruments(contd…)
A creepmeter is an instrument that monitors the slow
surface displacement of an active geologic fault in the
earth. Its function is to record the slow, seismic slip
between earthquakes. The measurement range of a
creepmeter is usually limited to 10-30 mm.
Approximately 40 creepmeters are in operation in
California—most are operated by the (USGS), but nine
are maintained by the University pf Colorado.
In the past, such meters used to use wire stretched
across a fault. Current creepmeters use laser
technology.
 Other seismic instruments(contd…)
Gravimeter measures the
variations in the local force
of gravity. Such variations
are the result of changes in
underground rock density.
 Earthquake prediction
Reliable long term earthquake prediction remains
elusive, short-term prediction based on the observation
or measurement of various precursors (premonitory
signs) seem possible.

One precursor is the seismic bay hypothesis, which

gives that as the rock masses along a fault develop
stresses, they crack and increase in volume. The
volume increase in not consistently detectable, but in
some cases can be observed.
 Earthquake prediction(contd…)
Another precursor is a decrease in the ratio of velocities
of the two major seismic wave type. Normally, the ratio
of velocities of the P- and S-waves is approximately 1.7,
but this ratio decreases as the fault rock breaks.
After a time, groundwater seeps in and fills the fissures
and the velocity ratio returns to 1.7. According to the
hypothesis, an earthquake can then occur.

Another precursor is the emission of ultra-low

frequency radio waves before an earthquake.