Process Engineering

Basics of Process Planning

for computer implementation

IE550 -- Manufacturing Systems

Fall 2008

Dr. R. A. Wysk

01/14/22 4- 1
 Chapter 6 -- Process Engineering

01/14/22 4- 2
 The Engineering Process
Design
specifications

Inspection
Process Process planning
capability

Processes Finished part

Stock Material

Need to understand the process capabilities.

01/14/22 4- 3
 PROCESS CAPABILITIES
Process: certain way an operation is carried out, e.g. turning,
drilling, milling.

Tool: physical object which is used to carrying out a process,

e.g. twist drill, spade drill, gun drill.

Machine tool: machine on which process is carried out, e.g.

lathe, drill press, milling machine, machining center.

Process capability: The geometry and tolerance a manufacturing process

can produce, and its limitations, . i.e. shape and size, dimensional and
geometric tolerances, material removal rate, relative cost, other
cutting constraints.

01/14/22 4- 4
 LEVELS OF PROCESS CAPABILITIES
Universal level:
Handbook and textbook level data. Aggregate characterization of what
can be expected. General measures of the process capability such as
shape and size. What the process can accomplish in an average shop
on a typical machine tool.

Shop level:
Specific to a particular manufacturing system. What is the best
attainable capability in one specific shop, e.g. the turning capability of
the student machine shop is far worse than that in the shop of a
precision spindle manufacturer.

Machine level:
Specific to a machine. Machines in the same shop has very different
capability. A table top lathe can machine a small part, yet a large slant
bed lathe may be able to handle a 20"x 10' part.

01/14/22 4- 5
PROCESS KNOWLEDGE COLLECTION
Few scientific data available or published.
Most process knowledge are gained during actual manufacturing
practice.
Practical manufacturing knowledge is still an art instead of a science.
Certain information can be found in the textbooks, handbooks,
machining data handbook, etc.
Tolerance capability may be obtained from control charts, inspection
reports, and on-line sensor data.

01/14/22 4- 6
 EXPERIENCE-BASED
PLANNING
Relay on one's experience. Most frequently this is the way industry
operates.

Problems:

a. Experience requires a significant period of time to accumulate.

b. Experience represents only approximate, not exact knowledge.
c. Experience is not directly applicable to new processes or new
systems.

Need to automate.

01/14/22 4- 7
 MACHINIST
HANDBOOKS
Universal or shop level knowledge.

e.g. Surface-finish chart - limiting extremes of process

8  in - use grinding, polishing, lapping

Usually not with milling, however, finish milling may achieve the
specification.

The information is general. It does not mean every machine or shop

can achieve that accuracy.

Turning limit (6.3 - 0.4 m or 250 - 16  inch)

Diamond turning at Lawrence Livermore Lab
(12.5 nm or 0.47  inch)

01/14/22 4- 8
 SURFACE FINISH
CHART

01/14/22 4- 9
01/14/22 4- 10
 Dimensional accuracies for Process Planning

01/14/22 4- 11
 HOLE MAKING KNOWLEDGE
Following data is taken from a manufacturer's process planner's handbook.

I. Dia < 0.5"

A. True position > 0.010"
1. Tolerance > 0.010"
Drill the hole.
2. Tolerance < 0.010"
Drill and ream the hole.
B. True position < 0.010”
1. Tolerance < 0.010"
Drill, then finish bore the hole.
2. Tolerance < 0.002"
Drill, semi-finish bore, then finish bore the hole.
II. 0.05" < dia < 1.00"

01/14/22 4- 12
 DECISION TABLES
To computerize the decision making, one simple way is to use decision tables.
If the conditions set in an entry are satisfied, the actions in the entry are
executed. The stub contains the condition or action statements. Entries mark
which conditions or actions are applicable. Each entry contain one rule.

Stub Entries

Conditions

Actions

01/14/22 4- 13
 EXAMPLE DECISION TABLE

Dia < 0.5 X X X X

0.5 < Dia < 1.0 X X X
T.P < 0.010 X X
T.P < 0.010 X X
Tol > 0.010 X
0.002 < Tol < 0.010 X X
Tol < 0.002 X
Drill
X X X X
Ream X
Semi-finish bore
X
Finish bore X X

01/14/22 4- 14
 DECISION TREES
To computerize the decision making, one simple way is to use decision trees.

Decision tree is a graph with a single root and branches emanating from the
root. Each branch has a condition statement associate with it. Actions are
written at the terminal. Probabilities may be assigned to the branches. In this
case, the tree represents probabilistic state transitions.
terminal

Branch
Root
The node may be "AND" nodes
or "OR" nodes.

Node

01/14/22 4- 15
 EXAMPLE DECISION TREE
Tol > 0.010 Drill

Tol < 0.010

T.P < 0.010 Drill, then ream

Dia < 0.5

T.P < 0.010

0.5 < Dia < 1.0
0.002 < Tol < 0.010 Drill, then finish bore

Tol < 0.002

Drill, semifinish bore,

then finish bore

01/14/22 4- 16
 PROCESS-CAPABILITY
ANALYSIS
PROCESS BOUNDARY Data
;
; twist drilling (code 1)
; 111: hole
( ( if
(shape ! 111 = )
( length ! 12.0 diameter ! * <= )
( diameter! 0.0625 >= )
( diameter! 2.000 <= )
( tlp ! diameter ! 0.5 ** 0.007 * >= )
( tln ! diameter ! 0.5 ** 0.007 * 0.003 + >= )
( straightness ! length ! diameter ! / 3. ** 0.0005 * 0.002 + >= )
( roundness ! 0.004 >= )
( parallelism ! length ! diameter ! / 3. ** 0.001 * 0.003 + >= )
( true ! 0.008 >= )
( sf ! 100 >= )
)

01/14/22 4- 17
PROCESSES, TOOLS, AND MACHINES
Pro cess Sub-Proces s Cutters Machines
Face mi ll i ng Pl ai n Verti cal mi l li ng machin e
In sert ed-too th Hori zont al mi ll i ng machin e
Mi ll in g
Peri pheral mi l li ng Pl ai n
Colu mn-and-kn ee
Sl itt t i ng Saw
Form Bed t yp e
In sert ed-too th Pl aner t ype
Sp eci al ty pe
St agg ered -t oo th

• Angl e
T-sl ot cu tter
Wood ruff key seat cu tt er
Mach in in g cent er

Form mi ll in g cu tt er
En d mi ll i ng Pl ai n
Shel l end
Holl o w end
Bal l end
Twis t dri ll Colu mn & u prig ht
Spad e d ri l l Gang d ril li n g machi ne
Deep -ho le d ri l l Radi al dri ll i ng mach in e
Dri l li ng Gun d ri l l Mu lt is pi nd l e dri ll in g machi n e
Trepanni ng cu tt er Bench t ype
Cen ter d ri ll Deep th hol e d ri l li ng machi ne
Comb inat io n dri ll
Coun t ers i nk
Coun t erb ore
Shel l reamer Dri ll pres s
Reami ng Exp an sio n reamer Lat he
Adju s tabl e reamer
Taper reamer
Adju s tabl e bo ri ng bar Lat he
Bori ng Bori ng machi ne
Si mpl e b ori ng b ar
J ig b ore
Pl ai n Sp eed l at he
Tu rni ng
Facin g In sert ed En g in e lat he
Part in g To o lroom l ath e
Sp eci al lath e
Tu rni ng
Knurli ng Knurl in g to ol
Tu rret l at he
Screw machi ne
Bori ng Bori n g b ars
Dri l li ng Dri l ls
Reamin g Reamers
Broach i ng p ress
Verti cal Pul l-do wn
Verti cal Pul l-up
Broach in g Su rface broachi n g mach i ne
Form to ol
Hori zont al broachi ng mach ine
Su rface broachi n g mach i ne
Rotary broach in g mach ine

01/14/22 4- 18
PROCESSES, TOOLS, AND MACHINES
Process Sub-Process Cutters Machines

Hacksaw Reciprocating saw

Sawing Bandsaw Band saw
Circular saw Circular saw
Form tool Shaper
Shaping
Horizontal & Vertical
Inserted tool Double housing planer
Open-side planer
Planing Edge planer
Pit Planer
Cylindrical grinding Grinding wheels External cylindrical grinder
Centerless grinding Points Internal cylindrical grinder
Grinding Internal grinding Surface grinder
External grinding Creep feed grinder
Surface grinding Tool grinder
Disk grinder
Honing Honing stone Honing machine

Lapping Lap Lapping machine

Tapping Tap Drill press

Milling machine
Machining center

01/14/22 4- 19
 CUTTING EDGE AND FEED

cutting edge

Drill Boring Reaming

minor feed

Turning

Peripheral Face
Milling Milling

feed range

Ball End Broaching Sawing

Milling

01/14/22 4- 20
 VOLUME PRODUCING CAPABILITIES
Cutters Vol ume Ca pabi l i ties
Proces s Sub-Pro cess
Face mi l li n g Pl ai n fl at bot t om v ol ume
Ins erted-t o ot h
Mi l l i ng
Peri ph eral mi l l i ng Pl ai n fl at bot t om v ol ume
Sl i t t t i ng Saw s lo t
Form fo rmed vol ume
Ins erted-t o ot h
St aggered -t oot h
Angl e
T-s l ot cut t er T-s l ot
Wo od ruff k eys eat cu t ter In t ern al groo ve

End mi l l i ng Pl ai n pocket, s l ot , flat

Shel l end
Hol l ow end
Bal l en d s cul p tu red su rface, fl at
Twi st dri l l ro und ho l e
Spad e d ri ll ro und ho l e
Deep -h ol e dri l l deep roun d h ol e
Gun d ri l l deep roun d h ol e
Dri l l i ng
Trepanni ng cut t er larg e ro und ho le
Cen ter dri l l s hal l ow roun d ho le
Comb i nat i on d ri l l mu l ti pl e di amet er round hol e
Coun ters i nk cou nt ersi nk ho l e
Coun terb ore cou nt erbore ho l e
Shel l reamer th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Reami ng Exp ans i o n reamer th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Adj u st abl e reamer th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Taper reamer th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Adj u st abl e bori n g bar th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Bori ng th i n wal l of roun d ho l e
Si mpl e borin g bar

Pl ai n ?
Turni ng
Ins erted di sk
Faci ng
di sk
Part i n g
Tu rni ng Knurli n g t oo l ?
Kn url i ng
th i n wal l of ro und ho l e
Bo ri ng Bori ng bars
ro und hol e
Dri l l i ng Dri l ls
Reamers th i n wal l of ro und ho l e
Reami ng
fl at bot t om v ol ume
s lo t
s tep
Broach i ng Form t o ol pol yh edral th ro ugh h ol e
fo rmed t hrou gh v ol ume

01/14/22 4- 21
 VOLUME PRODUCING CAPABILITIES
Process Sub-Process Cutters Volume Capabilities

Hacksaw ?
Sawing Bandsaw
Circular saw
Shaping Form tool flat bottom volume, slot

Inserted tool flat bottom volume

Planing

Cylindrical grinding Grinding wheels ?

Centerless grinding Points internal wall of round hole
Grinding Internal grinding flat bottom volume
External grinding
Surface grinding

Honing Honing stone ?

Lapping Lap most surfaces

Tapping Tap threaded wall of hole

01/14/22 4- 22
 PROCESS TOLERANCE
Process

RANGE
Sub-Proc ess

Fa ce milling
Plain
Cutter s

Inserted-tooth
Plain
To lerances, surface fi nish, etc. capabi lities

tol
fla tness
roughting finishing
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
angula rity 0.001 0.001
Slittting Saw
pa ralle lism 0.001 0.001
Form surface finish 50 30
Milling Inserted-tooth
Pe riphera l milling Staggere d-tooth roughting finishing
Angle tol 0.002 0.001
T-slot cutter fla tness 0.001 0.001
Woodruff keyse at cutte r surface finish 50 30
Form milling cutter
Plain roughting finishing
End milling Shell end tol 0.004 0.004
Hollow e nd parallelism 0.0015 0.0015
Ball end surfa ce finish 60 50
length/dia = 3 usual = 8 maximum
Twist drill
mtl < Rc 30 usua l < Rc 50 maximum
Spade drill
Trepa nning c utter usua ll best
Dia Tolerance
Center drill 0 - 1/8 + 0.003 -0.001 True position 0.008 0.0004
Combina tion drill 1/8-1/4 + 0.004 -0.001 roundness 0.004
Drilling
Countersink 1/4-1/2 + 0.006 -0.001 surfa ce f inish 100
Counterbore
1/2- 1 + 0.008 -0.002
1 - 2 + 0.010 -0.003
2 - 4 + 0.012 -0.004
Deep-hole drill Dia Tolerance surfa ce f inish > 100
Gun drill < 5/8 0.0015 straightness 0.005 in 6 inch
> 5/8 0.002
Dia Toleranc e roughting finishing
Shell rea me r 0 - 1/2 0.0005 to 0.001 roundness
Expa nsion reamer 0.0005 0.0005
Reaming 1/2- 1 0.001 true position 0.01 0.01
Adjustable re amer
1 - 2 0.002 surfac e finish 125 50
Taper reamer
2 - 4 0.003
le ngth/dia 5 to 8
stra ightness 0.0002
Adjustable boring ba r Dia Tole rance roundness 0.0003
Boring roughing finishing true position 0.0001
Simple boring bar
0 - 3/4 0.001 0.0002 surfa ce finish 8
3/4- 1 0.0015 0.0002
1 - 2 0.002 0.0004
2 - 4 0.003 0.0008
Turning
4 - 6 0.004 0.001
Fa cing
6 - 12 0.005 0.002
Pa rting
Plain
Knurling diamete r tolerance surface finish 250 to 16
Inserted
Turning Knurling tool to 1.0 0.001
Boring Boring bars 1 - 2 0.002
Drilling Drills 2 - 4 0.003
Rea ming Reamers
tolera nce 0.001
Broaching Form tool surfa ce finish 125 to 32

01/14/22 4- 23
 PROCESS TOLERANCE
Process

Sawing
RANGE
Sub-Process Cutters

Hacksaw
Bandsaw
Tolerances, surface finish, etc. capabilities
le ngth tol
0.01
0.01
squa rene ss
0.2
0.2
surface finish c utting rate
200 - 300
200 - 300
3-6 sq in/min
4-30 sq in/min
material
to Rc45
to Rc45
Circular saw 0.008 0.2 125 7-36 sq in/min to Rc 45
Shaping Form tool roughting finishing
loc ation tol 0.005 0.001
flatness 0.001 0.0005
surfac e finish 60 32 (c ast iron)
Planing Inserte d tool
surfac e finish 125 32 (steel)

Dia Tole ra nce

Internal grinding roughing finishing
Internal 0 - 1 0.00015 0.00005
1 - 2 0.0002 0.00005
Cylindrica l grinding
2 - 4 0.0003 0.0001
Centerless grinding
4 - 8 0.0005 0.00013
8 - 16 0.0008 0.0002
External grinding
Surface grinding roughing finishing
tolera nce 0.0005 0.0001
Grinding center ground pa rallelism 0.0005 0.0002
and cente rle ss roundness 0.0005 0.0001
surfac e fin 8 2

roughing finishing
tole rance 0.001 0.0001
para llelism 0.001 0.0001
flat surface fin 32 2

Dia Tole rance

roughing finishing surfac e finish 4
1 +0.0005-0.0 + 0.0001-0.0 roundness 0.0005
Honing Honing stone
2 +0.0008-0.0 + 0.0005-0.0
4 +0.0010-0.0 + 0.0008-0.0

roughing finishing
tolerance 0.000025 0.000015
Lapping Lap
flatness 0.000025 0.000012
surface fin 4-6 1-4

tolerance 0.003
Tapping Tap roundness 0.003
surface fin 75

01/14/22 4- 24
AUTOMOTIVE PARTS REQUIREMENTS

• Cylinder bore 13 - 25 in honed

• Main bearing bore 63 - 200 in
• Crankshaft bearing 3-13 in polished
• Brake drum 63-125 in turned
• Clutch pressure plate 25-100 in turned

01/14/22 4- 25
 BASIC MACHINING
Machining time
CALCULATIONS
Total amount of time to finish a workpiece.

For drilling, one pass turning, and milling:

 L
tm = L +vf

 L : clearance or overhang distance.

For multipass turning

D – Di
+ n p : # of passes
n p= o integer round up
2ap
h : total height of material to be removed
For milling
w : workpiece width
 h +
w +
n p= a  : cutter overlapping factor
p D
= effective cutting width / tool dia  1.0

01/14/22 4- 26
 BASIC MACHINING
CALCULATIONS
Machine control parameters are: f, V, ap.

a. Feed and feedrate

:f inch / rev V f : inch / min
rp m
V f= fn turning or drilling

V f = f nN milling Vf

# of teech in milling
N:
1 in drilling

n : rpm

01/14/22 4- 27
 BASIC MACHINING
Cutting speed CALCULATIONS
V
V in sfpm
surface speed
V =  D n D
12
D: Diameter

Depth of cut
D0
a p inch

Do – Di
ap =
2 Di

01/14/22 4- 28
 BASIC MACHINING
Metal removal rate CALCULATIONS  D
2

in 3 min
4
MRR

MRR cutting time tool life
vf
Drilling
  D
2
MRR = vf  ( D 2o – D 2i)
4
4
= 3D f V
Turning
 2 2
 ( D o – D i)
MRR = vf vf
4 W
= 6( Do – Di ) f V vf
Milling ap
 =a wv
MRR p f

12 a p w n
= fV
D
01/14/22 4- 29
 BASIC MACHINING
Machining time
CALCULATIONS
Total amount of time to finish a workpiece.

For drilling, one pass turning, and milling: L

 L
tm = L +vf

 L : clearance or overhang distance.

For multipass turning

D – Di
+ n p : # of passes
n p= o integer round up
2ap
h : total height of material to be removed
For milling
w : workpiece width

n p = h
+

ap D
w +  : cutter overlapping factor
= effective cutting width / tool dia  1.0

01/14/22 4- 30
 CUTTING FORCE AND POWER
Process Sub-Process Cutting Force F c (lb) Power (hp)

Face milling K F v FafFapFDtFbwFz F

Milling Fc Vc
Peripheral milling 33,000 m
End milling K F f FapFDtFbw z

Drilling
T s rpm
K F f FapF DtF 63,030 m
Reaming torque

Boring
Turning Turning  
K F f FapF Fc Vc
Facing 33,000 m
Shaping
Planing
Broaching K F apF Dmzc Fc Vc
33,000 m

where:
Vc :: cutting speed fpm
m : machine efficiency
Ts : Torque

01/14/22 4- 31
 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE
Process Sub-Process MRR
Face milling
W: width of the cutter
Milling Peripheral milling W ap f n N ap : depth of cut
f : feed
End milling n : number of teeth
N : spindle rpm

( D /4) f ND : tool
2
Drilling
diameter

Boring 12 V f ap

Turning 12 V f ap
Turning
Facing 6 V f ap

tr : rise per tooth

12 tr W V n W : Width of the tool
Broaching V : cutting speed
n : number of tooth in
contact with part

Shaping L t f Ns L : strock length

Ns : number of strock per minute

01/14/22 4- 32
 CONSTRAINT
Spindle-speed constraint:
S
nmin  nw  nmax workpiece
ntmin  nt  ntmax tool
Feed constraint:
f min  f  f max
Cutting-force constraint:
Fc  Fc,max

Power constraint:
Pm  Pmax

Surface-finish constraint:
Ra  Ra,max

01/14/22 4- 33
 MODELS
Multiple pass model

 np
t im
t pr  t h + 
i =1
(t m
i
+ t t)
t
i : pass number
 c
np

c pr  n b + cmt h +  ci pr
b i=1

Additional constraint:

depth of cut a p
np
: number of passes is a function of the depth of cut.

Productivity model:
 s – c pr
pr  t s: sale price/piece
pr

01/14/22 4- 34