UNIT-IV

INVERTERS
 UNIT IV
INVERTERS
Single phase and three phase (both 120º mode and 180º mode)
inverters - PWM techniques: Sinusoidal PWM, modified
sinusoidal PWM - multiple PWM – Introduction to space
vector modulations - Voltage and harmonic control - Series
resonant inverter - Current source inverter.
 Inverters: Inverter convert DC to AC

Single Phase Inverters : Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs)

can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies.
Half-Bridge Inverter: One of the simplest types of inverter. Produces a square
wave output.
 Single-Phase Inverters:
Full Bridge (H-bridge) Inverter:
 Two half-bridge inverters combined.

 Allows for four quadrant operation.

Quadrant 1: Positive step-down converter (forward motoring)

Q1-On; Q2 - Chopping; D3,Q1 freewheeling

Quadrant 2: Positive step-up converter (forward regeneration)

Q4 - Chopping; D2,D1 freewheeling

Quadrant 3: Negative step-down converter (reverse motoring)

Q3-On; Q4 - Chopping; D1,Q3 freewheeling

Quadrant 4: Negative step-up converter (reverse regeneration)

Q2 - Chopping; D3,D4 freewheeling

Phase-Shift Voltage Control : The output of the H-bridge
inverter can be controlled by phase shifting the control of the
component half-bridges.
 The waveform of the output voltage vab is a quasi-square wave of
pulse width . The Fourier series of vab is given by:
4Vd   n  
vab  
n 1,3,5... n 
sin 
 2
  cos  n t 


The value of the fundamental, a1= 4Vd

sin   / 2 

Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
Three-phase bridge inverters are widely used for high power

applications.
Three single phase half-bridge or full-bridge inverters, each phase-

shifted by 2/3 w.r.t each other, driving each of the phase windings.
To obtain 3-phase balanced voltages

Two modes of operation - square wave and six-step.

Two arrangements

i.3 single phase transformers , 12 diodes and 12 transistors

ii. 6 diodes and 6 transistors

a. 180 degree and b. 120 degree

 The phase-shift voltage control principle described earlier for the
single-phase inverter can be extended to control the output voltage of
a three-phase inverter.
Three-Phase Bridge Inverter
180 –Degree Conduction :
 Each transistor conduct for 180 degree
 3 transistors remain on at any instant of time
 Q1 on ‘a’ connected to +ve of DC, Q2 on ‘a’ connected to -ve of DC
 6-modes of operation in a cycle , each mode duration is 60 degree
 Sequence of gating 123 , 234 , 345 , 456 , 561 and 612.
 Gating signals are shifted by 60 degree to obtain 3 ϕ balanced voltages
 3 legs each having 2 switches (S1 and S4 , S3 and S6 , S5 and S2)
Both the switches in that leg should not be ON simultaneously
Avoid undefined switching states
Gating Sequence:
3 Square wave gating signals vg1 , vg3 , vg5 at fo shifed by 60 deg drive Q1,
Q3 , Q5
vg1 , vg3 , vg5 inverted as vg2 , vg4 , vg6 that drive Q2, Q4 , Q6
120 –Degree Conduction :( Transistors are less utilized)
 Each transistor conduct for 120 degree
 2 transistors remain on at any instant of time
 Q1 on ‘a’ connected to +ve of DC, Q2 on ‘a’ connected to -ve of DC
 6-modes of operation in a cycle , each mode duration is 60 degree
 Sequence of gating 61, 12 , 23 , 34 , 45 , 56 and 61.
 Gating signals are shifted by 30 degree to obtain 3 ϕ balanced voltages
 3 legs each having 2 switches (S1 and S4 , S3 and S6 , S5 and S2)
Both the switches in that leg should not be ON simultaneously
Avoid undefined switching states
Gating Sequence:
3 Square wave gating signals vg1 , vg3 , vg5 at fo shifed by 60 deg drive Q1,
Q3 , Q5
vg1 , vg3 , vg5 inverted as vg2 , vg4 , vg6 that drive Q2, Q4 , Q6
 PWM Technique
(1). To cope with the variations of dc input voltage
(2). To regulate voltage of inverters
(3). To satisfy the constant volts and frequency control requirement
Most efficient method of controlling the gain is to incorporate
PWM control
PWM Techniques:
1. Single PWM
2. Multiple PWM
3. Sinusoidal PWM
4. Modified Sinusoidal PWM
5. Phase – displacement control
Single PWM:
 Single PWM there is only one pulse per half – cycle.

 Pulse width (δ) is varied to control the inverter output voltage

 Comparing rectangular reference signal (Ar) and triangular carrier signal

(Ac)

 fr decides fo

 By varying Ar from 0 to Ac ,Pulse width (δ) can be modified from 0 to

180 deg
Vo(rms) can be varied from 0 to Vs

Due to symmetry of output voltage along the x-axis the even harmonics

are absent.
 Sinusoidal PWM

when va0> VT T+ on; T- off; va0 = ½Vd

va0 < VT T- on; T+ off; va0 = -½Vd
 Multiple Pulse-Width Modulation
In multiple-pulse modulation, all pulses are the same width
Vary the pulse width according to the amplitude of a sine
wave evaluated at the center of the same pulse

2 Reference Signals, vr, -vr

Comparing the carrier and reference signals

Generate g1 signal by comparison with vr

Generate g4 signal by comparison with -vr
Potential problem if Q1 and Q4 try to turn ON at the same time!
If we prevent the problem

Output voltage is low when g1 and g4 are both high

This composite signal is difficult to generate
Alternate scheme
Series-Resonant Inverter
Operation Series-Resonant Inverter

T1 fired, resonant pulse of current

flows through the load. The current
falls to zero at t = t1m and T1 is “self –
commutated”.

T2 fired, reverse resonant current

flows through the load and T2 is also

“self-commutated”.

The series resonant circuit must be

underdamped,

R2 < (4L/C)
Operation in Mode 1 – Fire T1

di1 1
L
dt
 Ri1 
C  i dt  v
1 C (0)  VS

i1 (0)  0
vC (0)  VC
Operation in Mode 2 – T1, T2 Both OFF

i2 (t )  0
vC2 (t )  VC1
vC2 (t2m )  VC2  VC1
Operation in Mode 3 – Fire T2

di3 1
L  Ri3   i3 dt  vC3 (0)  0
dt C
i3 (0)  0
vC3 (0)  VC2  VC1
 Space Vector Modulation
• Space Vector Diagram
 j 
V3 V2
OPO PPO
SECTOR
II
  SECTOR III   SECTOR I
• Active vectors: V1 to V6 Vref
(stationary, not rotating)  
V4  V1

 OPP PPP OOO POO
• Zero vector: V0 
V0
SECTOR IV SECTOR VI
• Six sectors: I to VI SECTOR V

OOP   POP
V5 V6
 Space Vector Modulation
• Space Vectors
• Three-phase voltages
v AO (t )  v BO (t )  vCO (t )  0 (1)

• Two-phase voltages
 2 4  v AO (t )
v (t )  2 cos 0 cos cos
 3 3  v (t ) 
v (t ) 
3 sin 0 sin 2 4   BO  (2)
    sin  vCO (t ) 
 3 3 
• Space vector representation

V (t )  v (t )  j v  (t ) (3)
(2)  (3)
 2
V (t )   v AO (t ) e j 0  v BO (t ) e j 2 / 3  vCO (t ) e j 4 / 3  (4)
3
where e  cos x  j sin x
jx
 Space Vector Modulation
• Space Vectors (Example)

Switching state [POO]  S1, S6 and S2 ON

2 1 1
v AO (t )  Vd , v BO (t )   Vd v
and CO (t )   Vd (5)
3 3 3
 j 
(5)  (4) V3 V2
OPO PPO
 2 SECTOR
V1  Vd e j 0 (6) SECTOR III
II
  SECTOR I
3 Vref
 
Similarly, V4  V1

OPP PPP OOO POO
 2  
j ( k 1)
Vk  Vd e 3
(7) V0
3 SECTOR IV SECTOR VI
SECTOR V
k  1, 2, ..., 6. OOP   POP
V5 V6
 Space Vector Modulation
• Active and Zero Vectors
P S w itc h in g S ta te V e cto r
S p a c e V e cto r O n -sta te S w itc h
(T h re e P h a se s) D efin itio n
S1 S3 S5
Z er o  [P P P ] S1, S 3 , S 5 
V ec to r
V0 V0  0
[O O O ] S4,S6,S2
A
  2
Vd B V1 [P O O ] S1, S 6 , S 2 V1  V d e j0
C 3
 
 2 j
V2 [P P O ] S1, S 3 , S 2 V2  Vd e 3
S4 S6 S2 3
 2
 2 j
V3 [O P O ] S4,S3,S2 V3  Vd e 3
N 3
A ctiv e
V ec to r   2 j
3
V4 [O P P ] S4,S3,S5 V4  Vd e 3
• Active Vector: 6 3
• Zero Vector: 1   2 j
4
V5 [O O P ] S4,S6,S5 V5  Vd e 3
3
• Redundant switching   2 j
5

states: [PPP] and [OOO] V6 [P O P ] S1, S 6 , S 5 V6  Vd e 3

3
 Space Vector Modulation
• Reference Vector Vref
 j 
V3 V2
• Definition OPO PPO

Vref  Vref e j SECTOR
II
SECTOR III   SECTOR I
Vref
• Rotating in space at ω  
V4  V1
  2 f (8) 
OPP PPP OOO POO

V0
• Angular displacement
SECTOR IV SECTOR VI
t
 (t )   0
 dt (9)
SECTOR V

OOP   POP
V5 V6
 Space Vector Modulation
• Relationship Between Vref and VAB

• Vref is approximated by two active 

V2
and a zero vectors

SECTOR I
• Vref rotates one revolution, Tb  
Vref
V2
VAB completes one cycle Ts Q


• Length of Vref corresponds to 
V1
Ta 
magnitude of VAB Ts
V1
 Space Vector Modulation
• Dwell Time Calculation 
V2
• Volt-Second Balancing
   
Vref Ts  V1 Ta  V2 Tb  V0 T0 
SECTOR I

 (10) Tb 
V2 Vref

Ts  Ta  Tb  T0
Ts Q

  
• Ta, Tb and T0 – dwell times for V1 , V2 and V0  
V1
Ta 
V1
Ts
• Ts – sampling period

• Space vectors
  2  2 
j 
Vref  Vref e , V1  Vd V2  Vd e
j
, 3 and V0  0 (11)
3 3
(11)  (10)
 2 1
 Re : Vref (cos  ) Ts  V d Ta  Vd Tb
3 3

Im : Vref (sin  ) Ts  1 Vd Tb (12)
 3
 Space Vector Modulation
• Dwell Times

Solve (12)

 3 Ts Vref 
Ta  sin (  )
 Vd 3
 3 Ts Vref
Tb  sin  0     /3 (13)
 Vd


T0  Ts  Ta  Tb
 Space Vector Modulation
• Vref Location versus Dwell Times

V2

SECTOR I
Tb  
V2 Vref
Ts Q

 
V1
Ta 
V1
Ts

VLo
c
a
refti
o 
n
00 
  
 

6 6 6 3 3

T
a0 
T
a0
D
w
e
ll
Ti
mes 
T
aTb 
T
aTb 
T
aTb

T
b0 
T
b0
 Space Vector Modulation
• Modulation Index

 
T
 a  Ts m a sin (  )
3
Tb  Ts ma sin  (15)

T0  Ts  Tb  Tc

3 Vref (16)
ma 
Vd
 Space Vector Modulation
• Modulation Range
 j 
V3 V2
OPO PPO
• Vref,max SECTOR
II
SECTOR III   SECTOR I
2 3 Vd Vref
Vref , max  Vd   (17)  
3 2 3 V4  V1

OPP PPP OOO POO

V0
SECTOR IV SECTOR VI
(17)  (16) SECTOR V

OOP   POP
• ma,max = 1  V5 V6

(18)
• Modulation range: 0  ma  1
 Space Vector Modulation
• Switching Sequence Design

• Basic Requirement:
Minimize the number of switchings per
sampling period Ts

• Implementation:
Transition from one switching state to
the next involves only two switches in
the same inverter leg.
 Space Vector Modulation
• Seven-segment Switching Sequence
      
V0 V1 V2 V0 V2 V1 V0
OOO POO PPO PPP PPO POO OOO
• Selected vectors: v AN
V0, V1 and V2 Vd
0

• Dwell times:
vBN
Vd
Ts = T0 + Ta + Tb 0

vCN Vd
0
T0 Ta Tb T0 Tb Ta T0
4 2 2 2 2 2 4

Ts
• Total number of switchings: 6
 Space Vector Modulation
• Undesirable Switching Sequence
• Vectors V1 and V2 swapped
      
V0 V2 V1 V0 V1 V2 V0
OOO PPO POO PPP POO PPO OOO
v AN
Vd
0
vBN
Vd
0

vCN Vd
0
T0 Tb Ta T0 Ta Tb T0
4 2 2 2 2 2 4

Ts

• Total number of switchings: 10

 Space Vector Modulation
• Switching Sequence Summary (7–segments)
S
ecto
r S
witc
hin
gSeq
uen
ce
      
V
0 V
1 V2 V0 V
2 V
1 V
0
I
O
O OP
OOPPO P
PP P
POPOOO
OO
      
V0 V3 V
2 V0 V2 V
3 V0
II
O
O OO
POPPO P
PP P
POOPOO
OO
      
V0 V3 V
4 V0 V4 V
3 V0
III
O
O OO
POOPP P
PP O
PP O
POOOO
      
V0 V5 V
4 V0 V4 V5 V
0
IV
O
O OO
OP O
PP P
PP O
PP O
OP O
OO
      
V0 V5 V6 V0 V6 V5 V0
V
O
O OO
OP P
O P P
PP P
OP O
O P O
OO
      
V0 V1 V6 V0 V6 V1 V0
V
I
O
OOP
OOP
OP P
PP P
OP P
OOO
OO
 Space Vector Modulation
• Simulated Waveforms
Sector
VI VI
V V
IV IV
III III
II II
I I

v AB
Vd
0
 2 3

v AO
2Vd / 3
0

iA

0
 2 3

f1 = 60Hz, fsw = 900Hz, ma = 0.696, Ts = 1.1ms

 Space Vector Modulation
• Waveforms and FFT
v AB THD =80.2%
Vd
0
2

v AO THD =80.2%
2Vd / 3
0

iA
THD =8.37%

0
 2 3

V ABn / Vd
THD =80.2%
V AB1  0.566Vd
0.2

0.1

0
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 n
 Space Vector Modulation
• Waveforms and FFT (Measured)

VABn
v AB Vd THD = 80.3%

0.2
23

14
10 47
v AO 0.1
29 34 58
16 43
8

(a) Waveforms 2ms/div (b) Spectrum (500Hz/div)

 Space Vector Modulation
• Even-Order Harmonic Elimination

VABn
v AB Vd THD = 80.5%
23
0.2

17

v AO 0.1 13 47
41 65
7
5 35

(a) Waveforms 2ms/div (b) Spectrum (500Hz/div)

• Measured waveforms and FFT

 Space Vector Modulation
• Even-Order Harmonic Elimination

V AB n / Vd THD
(%)

0.3 300
THD n 1

0.2 200
17
19
0.1 13 100
7
5
11 0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 ma

( f1  60Hz and Ts  1 / 720 sec )

 Space Vector Modulation
• Five-segment SVM

         
V0 V1 V2 V1 V0 V0 V2 V1 V2 V0
OOO POO PPO POO OOO PPP PPO POO PPO PPP

v AN Vd Vd
0

vBN Vd Vd
0

vCN Vd
0
T0 Ta Ta T0 T0 Tb Tb T0
Tb Ta
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ts Ts
(a) Sequence A (b) Sequence B
 Space Vector Modulation
• Switching Sequence ( 5-segment)

Sector Switching Sequence (A)

    
V0 V1 V2 V1 V0
I vCN  0
OOO POO PPO POO OOO
    
V0 V3 V2 V3 V0
II vCN  0
OOO OPO PPO OPO OOO
    
V0 V3 V4 V3 V0
III v AN  0
OOO OPO OPP OPO OOO
    
V0 V5 V4 V5 V0
IV v AN  0
OOO OOP OPP OOP OOO
    
V0 V5 V6 V5 V0
V v BN  0
OOO OOP POP OOP OOO
    
V0 V1 V6 V1 V0
VI v BN  0
OOO POO POP POO OOO
 Space Vector Modulation
• Simulated Waveforms ( 5-segment)
v g1 2 / 3
vg 3
vg 5 2 4

v AB
Vd
0
2 4

iA

0
2 4

• f1 = 60Hz, fsw = 600Hz, ma = 0.696, Ts = 1.1ms

• No switching for a 120° period per cycle.

• Low switching frequency but high harmonic distortion
Applications

Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDS),

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS),
Static Var Compensators,
Active Filters,
Flexible Ac Transmission Systems (FACTS),
And Voltage Compensator