Endocrine System

A & P-II
Unit V

Muhammad Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
• Define Endocrine system
• Identify the means of communication among cells
• Identify Endocrine glands and Endocrine tissues present
in the body
• Discuss types of Hormones, target cells, target organ
• Briefly discuss Mechanism of Action of Hormone
( protein and steroids)
• Discuss the location and structure of pituitary gland.
 Objectives
• Discuss the role of hypothalamic hormones in
the regulation of pituitary gland secretions.
• Discuss the functions of the hormones secreted
by anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
• Briefly discuss the structure, function &
hormones of the following glands
• Thyroid
• Para Thyroid
• Pineal
• Adrenal
• Pancreas
The Endocrine System
 Definitions
• Endocrine system: the system of glands that
produce cellular secretions which help to control
bodily metabolic activities.
• Endocrine gland: A ductless gland that secretes
hormones into the blood stream.
• Exocrine gland: A gland that secretes its products
through a duct.
• Hormone (Gk. "impetus") is a chemical released
by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that
usually affects cells in other parts of the body.
 Communication among cells
• All physiological activities are regulated by two major
systems as Nervous and Endocrine system.
• For the body to maintain homeostasis, cells must be able
to communicate and integrate their activities.
• Cells communicate with each other in the following ways:
 Cell to Cell Signaling or Cell signaling
• The cells communicate with each other via chemical
messengers which are hormones or hormone like
substances. They may be secreted by endocrine glands or
nerve endings.
 Classification of chemical
messengers

• Endocrine Messengers
• Paracrine Messengers
• Autocrine Messengers
• Neurocrine Messengers
Classification of chemical messengers cont....

• Endocrine Messengers
• They are classical hormone like GH and Insulin.
• Paracrine Messengers (para =beside/near + crine
=secrete)
• They diffuse from control cells to target cells via the
interstitial fluid. Some of them directly enter the
neighboring target cells via gap junctions. Such
messengers are also called juxtacrine or local
messengers.
• e.g. Prostaglandin, histamine and NO(g)
• Another example of a local hormone is the nitric
oxide gas (NOg) which is released by endothelial
cells lining blood vessels. NO(g) causes relaxation of
nearby smooth muscle fibers in vessels, which in
turn causes vasodilation. The effects of such
vasodilation range from a lowering blood pressure
to erection of the penis in males.
 Communication among cells cont…
 Autocrines Those that act on the same cells that secrete them. e.g
Leukotrienes
 Neurocrines
• Neurocrine or neural messengers are neurotransmitters and
neurohormones
o Neurotransmitter -----from nerve cell to another or nerve cell or
muscle like Ach and dopamine.
o Neurohormone ------ by nerve cell into blood and transported to the
distant target cells like OT, ADH and hypothalamic releasing hormones.
 Norepinephrine acts both as -------

One example of local hormone is interleukin 2 (IL-2) which is released by

helper T cells during immune responses. IL-2 helps activate other
nearby cells, a paracrine effect. But it also acts as an autocrine by
stimulating the same cell that released it to proliferate.
• Gap junction having diameter of about 1.5—3
nm. join smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
epithelial and other cells to pass nutrients
from one cell to the other through cell
membrane.
 Communication among cells cont…
Functions of Gap Junctions:
1. Allows the passage of glucose, amino acids, and
ions having molecular wt. of less than 1000.
2. Exchange of chemical messengers
3. Propagation of action potential
 Chemical Synapse
It is the junction b/w a nerve fiber and a muscle
fiber or b/w two nerve fibers, through which the
signals are transmitted by the release of
chemical transmitter.
 Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted
into the blood stream and stimulate the physiology of
cells in another tissue or organ, often considerable
distance away. Hormones travel anywhere the blood
goes, but they affect only those cells that have
receptors for them.
 Hormones have a half-life, the time required for half of
the hormone to be cleared from the blood.
 GH is short lived; it has a half-life of 6 to 20 minutes. IGFs, by contrast, IGF
have half-lives of about 20 hours, so they greatly prolong the effect of GH.
 The Role of Hormone Receptors
• A hormone travels through the body in the blood.
It influences only its target cells by binding to
specific protein receptors.
• Only the target cells recognize that hormone like
key-lock relationship.
• Receptors, like other cellular proteins, are
constantly being synthesized and broken down.
• Generally, a target cell has 2000 to 100,000
receptors for a particular hormone.
• Target cells can modulate (adjust) their sensitivity
to a hormone.
• When a hormone is present in excess, the number
of target cell receptors may decrease. This effect is
known as down-regulation. For example, when
certain cells of the testes are exposed to a high
concentration of LH, the number of LH receptors
decreases. Down regulation makes a target cell
less sensitive.
• In contrast, when a hormone is deficient, the
number of receptors may increase. This
phenomenon is known as up-regulation which
makes a target cell more sensitive to a hormone
 Classification of Hormones
• Classified into three:
• 1. Steroid Hormones
• 2. Protein Hormones
• 3. Derivatives of Amino acid called Tyrosine
 Steroid Hormones
• Aldosterone
• Cortisol
• Corticosterone
• Testosterone
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
 Protein Hormones
• GH • Insulin
• TSH • Glucagon
• ACTH
• Somatostatin
• FSH
• HCG
• LH
• Prolactin
• ADH
• OT
• Calcitonin
• Parathermone
 Derivatives of Tyrosine

• T3
• T4
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• Dopamin
 Mechanism of Hormone Action
• 1. By altering permeability of cell membrane
• 2. By activating intracellular enzyme
• 3. By acting on genes
 Endocrine Glands
• Endocrine glands include:
• Pituitary
• Pineal
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
In addition, several organs and tissues are not
exclusively classified as endocrine glands but
contain cells that secrete hormones. These are:
• Hypothalamus
• Thymus
• Ovaries
• Testes
• Placenta
• Kidneys
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Heart, Skin, Adipose tissues
Names and Abbreviations for Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone Anterior pituitary
gland

ADH Antidiuretic hormone Posterior pituitary

ANP Atrial natriuretic peptide Heart
CRH Corticotropin-releasing Hypothalamus
hormone

DHEA Dehydroepiandrosterone Adrenal cortex

EPO Erythopoietin Kidney, liver
Names and Abbreviations for Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
FSH Follicle stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary
GH Growth hormone Anterior pituitary
GHRH Growth hormone releasing Hypothalamus
h.
GnRH Gonadotropin-releasing h. Hypothalamus
IGFs Insulin-like growth factors Liver, other tissues
(somatomedins)
LH Lutinizing hormone Anterior pituitary
NE Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla
OT Oxytocin Posterior pituitary
Names and Abbreviations for Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
PIH Prolactin-inhibiting hormone Hypothalamus
(dopamine)
PRH Prolactin-releasing hormone Hypothalamus
PRL Prolactin Anterior pituitary
PTH Parathermone Parathyroids
T3 Triiodothyronine Thyroid
T4 Thyroxin (tetraiodothyronine) Thyroid
TH Thyroid hormone Thyroid
TRH Thyrotropin-releasing h. Hypothalamus
TSH Thyroid stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary