Organisational Change: Soft Systems Model For Change

Organisational Change 1
Chapter 8
Soft Systems Model for
Change
Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Overview
 This chapter challenges the notion of rationality
2
as applied to organisational change in the
context of soft complexity.
 Lewin’s three-phase model of change is
described as a simplified representation of a
more detailed description of organisational
development as an approach to change.
 Some limitations of organisational development
as a change philosophy and as a change
approach are discussed.
Objectives
 To:
 recognise that some change situations
(problems/opportunities), by nature of their 3
complexity and particular characteristics, require

soft rather than hard systems approaches to
change;
 consider the philosophy, value orientation and
theoretical underpinnings of Organisation
Development (OD) as a generalised example of soft
systems models for change;
 outline and describe the processes and practices
which comprise most OD approaches to designing
and implementing organisational change;
 discuss the limitations of OD approaches to
managing change.
Why Mess Management Is Needed - 1
 Various factors such as power
bases, organisational culture, 4
leadership styles, and changes in

the organisation’s environment, can
in many cases make organisational
change a lot more technically
complex and emotionally charged
(therefore messy) than the Hard
Systems Model of Change can
adequately deal with.
• People act in accordance with their 5

own view of what is rational for
them.
• They are not puppets, dummies,
cogs, cattle.

The Hard Systems model of change
is not likely to be effective: 6
 where the nature of the presenting

problems is defined differently by
different people (stakeholders) in the
situation.
 and where quantitative criteria cannot
readily be agreed upon.
 and where systems are complex.
 and where a pluralist ideology of
relationships prevails.

So how can managers
7
deal with messes?

The Art and Science of Mess
Management - 1
Ackoff (1993:47) suggests there are 3 ‘kinds of 8
things’ which can be done about messes. The first
two are:
• Resolve them
• Select a hunch that yields a “good enough”
outcome - one that satisfices (satisfies and
suffices). Patch and mend, survival-oriented.
• Solve them
• Select quantitative approaches based on research
and rational-logical methods of analysis. Focuses
on the trees rather than on the wood; atomistic.
Ackoff, R.L. (1993). The art and science of mess management, in Mabey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (eds) Managing Change. London, P.C.P.

The Art and Science of Mess Management - 2
The third of Ackoff’s (1993: 47) ways of
tackling messes is:
• Dissolve them - idealising 9
• Change the nature of the problem context

(or system involved) so as to remove the
problem.
• Development oriented – eager to improve
quality of life for self and others.
• Resigning systems at various levels of the
organisation to dissolve the problem
• This is what the soft systems approach
tries to do.

• Change is only effective when
people’s feelings, needs, 10
perceptions, ways of doing things &

hopes are addressed. AND
• messy situations require managers
to dissolve existing problems, by
challenging underlying purposes
and assumptions.

For the manager who wishes to dissolve

problems, Buchanan and Boddy (1992) 11
suggest:
• ‘backstaging’, not just ‘public
performance’
• ‘political skills’ behind the scenes
• ‘intervening in political and cultural
systems’
• ‘managing meaning’ – ‘selling the
change’

Differences Between Hard & Soft Change Approaches
HARD SOFT
 Clear goals and objectives  Organisations as social 12
 Quantifiable data entities
 Control mechanisms are  Goals need negotiation
clear  Different perspectives
 Power is clear, known to  Power diffuse and
work frequently unknown
 Unitary view of  Consensus view/conflict
organisation view of organisation
 Evolved first to meet  Evolved later (1960s) in
needs of modern response to difficulties in
engineering and industrial using hard approaches
systems  Aims to appreciate and
 Aims to solve problems improve problems
 Analyst detached from  Analyst part of the
situation situation
Organisation Development - 1
 ‘Organization development (OD) is a long term
effort, led and supported by top management, to 13
improve an organization’s visioning, empowerment,
learning, and problem-solving processes, through
an ongoing, collaborative management of the
organization culture - with special emphasis on the
culture of intact work teams and other team
configurations - utilizing the consultant-facilitator
role and the theory and technology of applied
behavioural science, including action research.’
(French, W.L. and Bell, C.H, (1995). Organization Development:

Behavioural Science Interventions for Organization Improvement,
Fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, p.28.).

Organisation Development - 2
 ‘Organization development is an ongoing
process of change aimed at resolving issues 14
within an organization through the effective
diagnosis and management of the organization’s
culture. This development process uses
behavioral and social science techniques and
methodologies through a consultant facilitator
and employs action-research as one of the main
mechanism for instigating change in
organizational groups.’
 (McCalman, J & Paton, R (1992). Change Management Guide to Effective
Implementation, London, P.C.P. p 131).

Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model
for Change - 1
 It emphasises goals and processes with 15
emphasis on processes
 It deals with change over medium and
long-term
 It is about people and recognises their
worth
 It involves the organisation as a whole
as well as its parts
 It emphasises the concept of a change
agent/facilitator

Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model
for Change - 2
 It uses action research as a means of 16
intervention
 It is participative, drawing on theory and
practices of the behavioural sciences
 It subscribes to a humanistic philosophy
of openness
 It is a process of facilitation at the
individual, group and organisational level
 It has top-management support and
involvement

Learning Organisation - 1
 More recently, the concept of a learning
organisation has been blended in with 17
OD.
 Central ideas of the LO:
– A process approach to change in which
everything, including existing goals and the
goal setting processes, is subject to
challenge.
– Double-loop learning.
– Change is continuous.
– Development of the organisation is treated
as being central to its well-being.

Learning Organisation - 2
 More central ideas of the LO: 18
– Shared visioning
– Proactive learning
– Continuous experimentation & risk
taking
– Leaders as facilitators and learning
leaders
– Team learning

Why Organisation Development Is
So Important - 1
 The volume of change in many organisations is 19
massive
 The economic scene places demands on managers
while they are reluctant to change from tried and
tested methods
 The role of management is changing and new models
are needed
 Change management takes time
 Some changes challenge basic assumptions, for
example, the role of supervisory staff
Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.
Why Organisation Development Is
So Important - 2
 The need for control remains - the skill is remaining
20
in control when so much change is going on.

 More comprehensive strategic pictures are needed
which integrate different changes in the
organisation and alleviate confusion.
 Organisation design and re-design are as important
and necessary as product, process or system
design and are the responsibility of management
and people in organisations, not just specialists.
Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.

Lewin’s Three Step Process to Changing
Behaviour
UNFREEZING
21
Resistance to change lessened,

need for change created
(Equilibrium disturbed)
MOVING
From old behaviour

to the new
(Changes)
REFREEZING
Change made
permanent

Unfreezing
 ‘Shaking up’
22
 Disconfirmation of old ways of doing
things
 Questioning & challenging of
established wisdom

Moving
 Making the actual changes to move to
23
the new state of existence.
 Includes the development of new
strategies, structures, systems &
responsibilities and the shedding of old
ones.

Refreezing
 Stabilizing, institutionalising the
24
changes.
 Making sure the organisation doesn't go
backwards to the old state.
 Reinforcement of the changes through
symbols, such as changed logos, dress,
building design, structures.

Refreezing???
 Re-freezing may not be appropriate in

25
an era of continuous change, so maybe
this stage involves something more like
stabilising.

Effective Management of
Change
26
 ‘An effective manager...: anticipates the need for
change as opposed to reacting after the event to
the emergency; diagnoses the nature of change
that is required and carefully considers a number
of alternatives that might improve organisational
functioning, as opposed to taking the fastest way
to escape the problem; and manages the change
process over a period of time so that it is
effective and accepted as opposed to lurching
from one crisis to another.’
(Pugh, D. (1993). Understanding and managing change. In Maybey, C. and Mayon-White,

B. (Eds.) Managing Change, Second edition. London, P.C.P.).

The OD Model for Change - 1
 A number of elements distinguish this
approach from the hard systems model 27
of change discussed in Chapter 7.

 Change is not a ‘one-off’ event, but is
rather an iterative, cyclical process which
is continuous as part of everyday
organisational life.
 Components of the model are diagnosis,
data gathering, feedback to the client
group, data discussion and work by the
client group, action planning and action.
The OD Model for Change - 2
 These components may form cycles of activity
within each stage of the OD process. 28
 The OD approach to change is firmly embedded in

the assumption that all who are or who might be
involved in any change should be part of the
decision-making process to decide what that
change might be and to bring it about.
 It is not a project planned and implemented by
senior managers with the assumption that other
workers in the organisation will automatically go
along with it.

Action Research - 1
 Action research is central to EACH
STAGE of the OD process. 29
 It is a collaborative effort between the

leaders and facilitators of any change
and those who have to enact it.
 It involves data gathering, feedback of
data to the client group, data
discussion, action planning, and action.
 Therefore, action research is, as its
name suggests, a combination of
research and action.

Action Research - 2
 Action research involves collecting data
relevant to the situation of interest, 30
feeding back the results to those who

must take action, collaboratively
discussing the data to formulate an
action plan, and finally, taking the
necessary action.

The OD model for change
PRESENT STATE
(1a) FUTURE STATE
Diagnose current (1b)
situation 31
Develop a vision
for change
(5)
Assess and
reinforce
change
(2)
(4) Gain
Implement commitment
change to the vision
(3)
Develop an
action plan
JOURNEY TO THE FUTURE

Stage 1 - Understanding Present &
Future States
 At stages 1a and 1b the issues, problems 32
and opportunities are to be fully explored
and the (generally) multiple perspectives of
people in the change situation should be
understood.
 Diagnosing the current situation should not
be rushed through without sufficient
consideration of the underlying issues as
well as the presenting ones.

Stage 2 - Gaining Commitment to the
Vision
33
 Once the vision for change has taken shape

(stage 1b), commitment to it has to be gained.
 Consequently, sharing the vision with all
concerned is important, which might mean a
review, again, of the vision for change.
 It is vital to ‘listen to the organisation - people's
responses in words and deeds to the vision
proposal.

Stage 3: Develop an Action
Plan (1)
34
 Stage 3 is complex and requires

much consultation and gaining the
participation of those who must
enact the change.
 Possible resistance to change must
be addressed.

Pugh’s Principles of Change -1
 Principle 1: 35
–Organisations are organisms
– adequacy of planning
– adequacy of persuasion
– adequacy of ‘digestion’

Pugh’s Principles of Change - 2
 Principle 2: Organisations are
occupational and political systems 36
–account taken of occupational

impact
–account taken of political
impact

Pugh’s Principles of Change - 3
 Principle 3: All members of an
organisation operate simultaneously in all 37
three systems - the rational, the

occupational, the political
– appropriateness of starting site

– appropriateness of methods used

Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (2)
 The role of the change agent is important in the
whole of stage 3. Debates occur as to whether the
use of an internal or external change agent is 38
preferable.
 Buchanan and Boddy (1992) have written about
CHANGE AGENTS’ competencies.
– Sensitive, clear, flexible goal setting.
– Team building, networking, handling ambiguity.
– Communicating, dealing with people and
meetings,enthusing, motivating.
– Selling, negotiating.
– Dealing with the politics, influencing, the broader
view.
CHANGE AGENTS help the

organisation to: 39
 Define the problem.

 Examine and diagnose the problem.
 Come up with alternative solutions.
 Direct implementation of solutions.
 Crystallise the learning.

 ‘Responsibility charting’ helps in the 40
assessment of the alternative behaviours for
those involved in the series of actions for
change.
 It involves identifying and assigning the
specific people involved in each action or
decision.
– who is responsible (one person).
– who are the approval givers (not too many).
– who are the supporters, resource providers (vital).
– who should be be informed.
A Responsibility Chart
R= responsible
A = approval giver, can veto 41
S = must support; provide resources

I = to be informed
Actions Actors
A B C D E F G
1 R A A I I S
2 S R A I I I
3 S R A S
4 S I A R I
5 S A R A
6 I A R S
Possible stakeholders who are starting 42
points for change:

 Top management.
 Groups who are ‘management-ready’, i.e.
ready for change.
– Includes ‘hurting systems. Those in pain.
 New teams or systems.
 Change agents. Staff members who will
facilitate subsequent change.
 Temporary change implementation project
teams.
 Pugh’s (1986) OD matrix on p. 323 is
43
very useful in deciding where, in an
organisation, change efforts should start
and be planned.
– start with desired behaviour that needs to
change.
– move to organising the system, structure,
info. flows, etc. that may need to change.
– move to organise the contextual setting
that may also need to change.
The Pugh OD Matrix
Problems
Behaviour Structure Context 44
etc.
Org level Poor org Wrong Wrong
climate structure strategy
Inter- Lack of Poor co- Distance
group cooperation ordination
Group Poor team Unclear Poor
level spirit group task resources
Individual Dissatisfied Poorly Poor
level person defined job application
of HRM

The Pugh OD Matrix
Remedies
Behaviour Structure Context 45
etc.
Org level Survey Change Change
feedback structure strategy
Inter- Role Improve Bring
group negotiation liaison groups
closer
Group Team Redesign Change
level building work technology
system or staffing
Individual Counselling Job Improve
level enrichment HRM

Decide what needs to change:
– behaviour 46
– systems/structure,
– or contexts
Action plan must be:

 relevant
 specific
 integrated
 in the right time frame
 adaptable
Stage 4 Implement the Change
 Stages 4 (and 5) of the OD process 47

‘Implementing and assessing and
reinforcing the change’ can make use of
a range of techniques, some of them
identified on the Pugh OD matrix.

Implement the Change (2) - Facilitated
Activities 1
 Survey feedback. Employee opinion
survey.
48
 Organisational mirroring. Focal group gets

feedback from other groups about how it
is perceived and regarded. Reciprocal.
‘Fishbowl technique’.
 Inter-group confrontation. Each group lists
its complaints about the other as well as
what it thinks the other group has as a
complaint against itself.
Activities 2
 Role negotiation. Focus on each 49
other’s behaviours and negotiate an
increase, decrease or status quo.
 Process consultation. The consultant
engages in feedback,coaching,
counselling, and helps individuals and
groups finds their own solutions.

Activities 3
 Team Building - focus on the team 50
processes, culture and responsibilities.
 Life and career planning - ‘Life line’
drawing, connecting past, present &
future. Write your own obituary.
 Plus various other methods for designing
structures and contexts.

Implement the Change (4)
 Go for a series of SHORT-TERM WINS, visible

outcomes (short term goals) that: 51
– show that sacrifices are worthwhile

– reward change agents
– help fine tune the visions and strategies
– counterbalance the cynics
– keep bosses happy
– build momentum

Stage 5: Assessing and Reinforcing
Change
 ‘Hard’ change is relatively easy to 52
assess
– Set hard objectives and quantifiable
performance measures
 ‘Soft’ change is more difficult to

assess

Assessing the ‘Soft’ Elements of Change
 Survey or cultural audit. 53
 Interviews with individuals or focus

groups.
 Examination of turnover and absenteeism
rates.
 Analysis (through observation or
questionnaire) of group performance.
 “Picturing” the organisation - ask staff to
portray the org in pictures, not words.

Reinforcing and Consolidating Change
 Design appraisal, career and reward systems 54
which help reinforce desired behaviours.

 Orientate staff training and development to
the new vision and the new situation.
 Hold people accountable for maintaining the
vision and continuing to implement the
change.

Iteration
 At all these stages, as Figure 8.2 on p.
55
312 shows, the requirement of iteration
back to previous stages and then
forwards again with modified plans and
actions is crucial to the way the OD
process operates.

An Assessment of the OD Model for
Change (1)
Three of the criticisms that have been 56
aimed at this model for change are:

1. OD does not always face up to the harsh ‘realities’ of
change. (‘Rather than unfreezing, people need to be
shaken up’.)
2. OD is limited when change situations are
‘constrained’. (Diagnosis and vision already set).
3.OD does not always fit with the policies and practices
of bureaucracy, political systems

Change (2)
A fourth criticism of the soft systems model
57
for change is
4. The claim that OD cannot be applied in the same way
across all cultures.
Supposedly it is not suited to high Power Distance, high
Uncertainty Avoidance, and high Masculinity cultures.

Change (3)
58
 Given these criticisms, care has to be taken
that the OD process is modified to suit different
circumstances.
 It must also be recognised that, in times of
crisis, managers may have to act very fast
and...
– it may not be possible to put into practice the full
consultation and participation that is built into the
OD process.

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Organisational Change 1

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

complexity and particular characteristics, require

leadership styles, and changes in

• People act in accordance with their 5

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 where the nature of the presenting

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

deal with messes?

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

• Change the nature of the problem context

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

perceptions, ways of doing things &

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

For the manager who wishes to dissolve

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

(French, W.L. and Bell, C.H, (1995). Organization Development:

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 More central ideas of the LO: 18

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

in control when so much change is going on.

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Resistance to change lessened,

From old behaviour

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 Re-freezing may not be appropriate in

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

(Pugh, D. (1993). Understanding and managing change. In Maybey, C. and Mayon-White,

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

of change discussed in Chapter 7.

 The OD approach to change is firmly embedded in

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 It is a collaborative effort between the

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

feeding back the results to those who

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

JOURNEY TO THE FUTURE

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 Once the vision for change has taken shape

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

 Stage 3 is complex and requires

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

–Organisations are organisms

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

–account taken of occupational

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

three systems - the rational, the

– appropriateness of starting site

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

CHANGE AGENTS help the

 Define the problem.

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

S = must support; provide resources

Possible stakeholders who are starting 42