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Environment
Chapter 2 Externalities
and the Environment
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Introduction
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
• government
Who can have property rights? • private firms
• individuals
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
TAXES PERMITS
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Trade-off between
Environmental Quality and Output
Figure 2.1
Environmental
Quality
Maximum environmental quality
a
b Increase in environmental quality
c and a decrease in output
d
Maximum output with zero
e environmental quality
f
Output
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Trade-off between
Environmental Quality and Output
The Virtues of Pollution Prices
Allocation problem
• Command and control method
• Tax method
• Polluters with different technological options
• Permit method
Objections to pollution prices and economist’s responses
• Pollution price is a “license to pollute”
• Pollution prices will raise product prices
• Pollution taxes will raise the tax burden on
the population
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Charging a Price vs. Mandating or
Subsidizing Clean Technologies
Economists recommend using pollution prices and
oppose mandating or subsidizing clean technologies.
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
A Pollution Tax
The right tax generates the right quantity of a polluting good
Figure 2.2
P MSC
J
S (MPC)
I MD
MSC = MPC + MD
$2.50
K
H
D (MB)
80 100 Gasoline
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
A Pollution Tax
Levy a corrective tax (Pigouvian tax) equal to the MD
Figure 2.3
P S` (MSC`)
J
S (MPC)
I T Social optimum quantity
$2.50 is where MSC = MB
K
at 80 units of gasoline
H
D (MB)
80 100 Gasoline
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
A Pollution Tax
An optimal tax confers a net benefit to society
Figure 2.4
P MSC Gain in environmental
J benefit = HIJK
S (MPC)
I
Loss of output = HIK
$2.50
K
Net gain to society
H
= HIJK – HIK
D (MB) = IJK
80 100 Gasoline
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
A Pollution Tax
Use pollution tax revenue to cut other taxes
• Pollution taxes as revenue replacers
• Different ways of returning the tax revenue to the
private sector will have different effects
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
A Pollution Tax
$200 MACH
Figure 2.5 • To minimize cost, levy the same
tax on all firms emitting pollutant X
$100
$25
$20
10 25 30 35 40 45 50
Emissions
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
MACH
A Pollution Tax
$200 Figure 2.5
• To minimize cost, levy the same
tax on all firms emitting pollutant X
• Marginal damage and tax rate is constant at $40
• Firms will abate until MAC = T
• Equi-marginal principle
$100
• After the tax is levied,
MACH will abate 10 units and
MACL will abate 40 units
$60
$50
MACL
$40 MD = T • After tax, total
$25 emission is
$20
50 units
10 25 30 35 40 45 50
Emissions
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Tradable Permits
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
$100 S
$60
$50 DL= MACL
$40
10 25 30 35 40 45 50 75 Permits
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
10 25 30 35 40 45 50 75 Permits
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Tradable Permits –
Government gives the permits away
Just like selling permits or levying a tax,
giving permits to polluting firms will reduce pollution.
• The supply curve for each polluting good will shift to the
left
• The price of polluting goods will increase
But, giving the permits away can lead to higher output
and emissions than is socially optimal in the long run.
Which is best?
• Firms want the government to give permits
• Taxpayers want the government to sell permits
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Summary
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Chapter 2: Externalities and the
Environment
Preview of Chapter 3:
Political economy
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