DESIGN OF SPUR GEAR

GEAR…..

Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location
where it is applied to performing useful work

A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force to another
gear or device
 Classification of Gears

According to the position of axes of the shafts.

(a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.

(a .Spur & Helical gear, b. Bevel gear , c. Spiral B gear)

According to the peripheral velocity of the gears.

(a)Low velocity, (b) Medium velocity, and (c) High velocity.

(Up to 3 m/s , 3 to 15 m / s , Above 15 m / s, )

According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the type of gearing.

(a)External gearing, (b) Internal gearing, and (c) Rack and pinion.
According to the position of teeth on the gear surface. The teeth on the gear surface.
(a)Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved
 TYPES OF GEARS
According to the position of axes of the shafts.
a. Parallel
1.Spur Gear
2.Helical Gear
3.Rack and Pinion
b. Intersecting
Bevel Gear
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel
worm and worm gears
 SPUR GEAR

Teeth is parallel to axis of rotation

Transmit power from one shaft to another parallel shaft

Used in Electric screwdriver, oscillating sprinkler, windup alarm clock, washing machine and
clothes dryer
External and Internal spur Gear…
 Gears (Spur) Meshing Horizontally
Gears (Spur) Meshing Vertically
 SELECTION OF TYPE OF GEARS

General layout of shafts:-

• Parallel shafts – Spur and Helical gears
• Perpendicular shafts – Bevel gears
• Perpendicular and non-intersecting shafts – Worm and Worm gears
 NUMBER OF STAGES

When the velocity ratio increases, the size of the gear wheel increases. This results in an

increase in size of the gearbox and the material cost increases.

Single pair spur or helical gears- 6:1
[ Under certain circumstances it can be increased to 10:1 ]
Single pair Bevel gears- 1:1
[ Under certain circumstances it can be increased to 3:1 ]
Single pair worm and worm gears- 60:1
[ Under certain circumstances it can be increased to 100:1
For high-speed reduction, two-stage or three-stage constructions are used.
 In a multi-stage gearbox consisting of two or three stages, the velocity ratio at each stage
should not exceed 6 : 1.
 The intermediate speeds, in this case, are arranged in geometric progression. If i' is the total
transmission ratio, i.e., the ratio of angular velocity of the first driving gear to that of the last
driven gear, then the speed reduction at each stage (i) is obtained in the following way.
For two stages, V. R. Per stage = Square root of V.R.
For three stages, V. R. Per stage = Quebec root of V.R.
 As the number of teeth increases, the pitch circle diameter and the size of the gear wheel also
increase, thus increasing the cost. Therefore, the number of teeth on the pinion as well as on
the gear should be kept as small as possible.
NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS
Pitch circle :- It is the curve of intersection of the pitch
surface of revolution and the plane of rotation. It is an
imaginary circle that rolls without slipping with the pitch
circle of a mating gear. The pitch circle of pair of mating gears
are tangent to each other.
Pitch circle Diameter (d’):- It is the diameter of the pitch
circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by the pitch
circle diameter. It is also called as Pitch Diameter.
Pitch point:- It is point on the line of centers of two gears at
which two pitch circles of mating gears are tangent to each
other.
Addendum (ha) :- It is radial distance between the pitch and the
addendum circle. It indicates the height of the tooth above the pitch
circle.
Dedendum (hf) :- It is radial distance between the pitch and
dedendum circle. It indicates the depth of the tooth below the pitch
circle.
Face width (b):- It is width of tooth measured parallel to the axis of
the Gear.
Pressure Angle (α):- It is angle which the line of action makes with
the common tangent to the pitch circle. It is also called as angle of
obliquity.
 Standard System of Gear Tooth

i. 14.5˚ full Depth Involute System

ii. 20˚ full Depth Involute system

iii. 20˚ Stub involute System
 14.5 full Depth 20 Full Depth 20 Stub
Involute Involute Involute

Pressure Angle 14.5 20 20

Addendum m m 0.8m
Dedendum 1.157m 1.25m m
Clearance 0.157m 0.25m 0.2m
Working Depth 2m 2m 1.6m

Whole Depth 2.157m 2.25m 1.8m

Tooth 1.5708m 1.5708m 1.5708m
Thickness
Advantages of 20° pressure angle system over 14.5° pressure angle system:
 The 20° pressure angle system has the following advantages over the 14.5° pressure angle
system:
(a) It reduces the risk of undercutting.
(b) It reduces interference.
(c) Due to the increased pressure angle, the tooth becomes slightly broader at the root. This
makes the tooth stronger and increases the load carrying capacity.
(d) It has greater length of contact.
The main advantage of the 14.5° pressure angle system is its quietness of operation.
 Modes of GEAR TOOTH FAILURE

 Tooth fracture
 Bending Failure
 Wear failure
 Abrasive wear
 Corrosive wear
 Initial pitting
 Destructive pitting
 Scoring
TOOTH BREAKAGE

Fatigue failure Bending failure

 WEAR FAILURE

Abrasive wear
 Abrasive wear is the principal reason for the failure of open gearing of machinery operating in media
polluted by abrasive materials.
 Examples are mining machinery; cement mills; road laying, building construction, agricultural and
transportation machinery.
 WEAR FAILURE

Corrosive wear
 Corrosive wear is due to the chemical action of the lubricating oil or the additives. Tooth is roughened
due to wear.
Initial pitting
 Initial pitting occurs during running-in period
wherein oversized peaks on the surface get
dislodged and small pits of 25 to 50 μm deep are
formed just below pitch line region.
 Later on, the load gets distributed over a larger
surface area and the stress comes down which
may stop the progress of pitting.
Destructive pitting
Scoring
 Scoring is due to combination of two distinct activities:
1. First, lubrication failure in the contact region and
2. Establishment of metal to metal contact. Later on,
welding and tearing action resulting from metallic
contact removes the metal rapidly and.
 Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s
Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science,Narhe,Pune-41.

DESIGN OF SPUR GEAR

 Number of Teeth

 In the design of gears, it is required to decide the number of teeth on the pinion and gear.
There is a limiting value of the minimum number of teeth on the pinion.
 As the number of teeth decreases, a point is reached when there is interference and the
standard tooth profile requires modification.
 The minimum number of teeth to avoid interference is given by,
2
Z min
sin 2 

 In practice, giving a slight radius to the tip of tooth can further reduce the value of zmin.
Theoretical and practical values of the minimum number of teeth on the pinion are as
follows:
 For the 20° full-depth involute tooth system, it is always safe to assume the number of teeth
on the pinion as 18 or 20. This does not require any modification in the profile.
 Once the number of teeth on the pinion is decided, the number of teeth on the gear is
calculated by the velocity ratio
Zg
i
Zp
 Face Width
 In the design of gears, it is required to express the face width in terms of the module. In the
Lewis equation, it is assumed that the tangential force Pt is uniformly distributed over the
entire face width.
 If the face width is too large, there is a possibility of concentration of load at one end of the
gear tooth due to a number of factors, like misalignment, elastic deformation of shafts, and
warping of gear tooth.
 On the other hand, gears with a small face width have a poor capacity to resist the shock and
absorb vibrations. They also wear at a faster rate. A narrow face width results in a coarse
pitch.
 In practice, the optimum range of the face width is
(8m)b(12m)
 In the preliminary stages of gear design, the face width is assumed as ten times of module.
 Beam Strength of Gear Tooth

 The analysis of bending stresses in gear tooth was

done by Wilfred Lewis in his paper, ‘The
investigation of the strength of gear tooth’
submitted at the Engineer’s Club of Philadelphia in
1892.
 Even today, the Lewis equation is considered as the
basic equation in the design of gears. In the Lewis
analysis, the gear tooth is treated as a cantilever
beam.as shown in Fig. The tangential component
(Pt) causes the bending moment about the base of
the tooth.
The Lewis equation is based on the following
assumptions:
1. The effect of the radial component (Pr), which
induces compressive stresses, is neglected.
2. It is assumed that the tangential component (Pt) is
uniformly distributed over the face width of the
gear. This is possible when the gears are rigid and
accurately machined.
3. The effect of stress concentration is neglected.
4. It is assumed that at any time, only one pair of
teeth is in contact and takes the total load.
 It is observed that the cross-section of the tooth
varies from the free end to the fixed end. Therefore,
a parabola is constructed within the tooth profile
and shown by a dotted line in shown in Fig.
 The advantage of parabolic outline is that it is a
beam of uniform strength. For this beam, the stress
at any cross-section is uniform or same. The
weakest section of the gear tooth is at the section
XX, where the parabola is tangent to the tooth
profile.
The bending stresses are given by,
Mb y
b 
I
M b  Pt * h
1
I   bt 3
 12 
t
y
2

Pt * h  t 
Mb y 2
b  
I  1  3 
 12 bt 
  
Rearranging the terms
 t2 
Pt  b b  
 6h 
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the right-hand side by m,
 t2 
Pt  mb b  
 6hm 
Defining a factor Y (Lewis form factor)
 t2 
Y   
 6hm 

the equation is rewritten as,

Pt  mb bY ............(a )
 In the equation, Y is called the Lewis form factor. Equation (a) gives the relationship between
the tangential force (Pt) and the corresponding stress σb.
 When the tangential force is increased, the stress also increases. When the stress reaches the
permissible magnitude of bending stresses, the corresponding force (Pt) is called the beam
strength.
 Therefore, the beam strength (σb) is the maximum value of the tangential force that the tooth
can transmit without bending failure.
 Replacing (Pt) by (Sb) Eq. (a) is modified in the following way
Sb  mb bY
where,
Sb = beam strength of gear tooth (N)
σb = permissible bending stress (N/mm2)
 Permissible Bending Stress
 The tooth of the gear is subjected to fluctuating bending stress as it comes in contact with
the meshing tooth. The stress–time diagrams for gear teeth are illustrated in Fig.
 The following observations are made from the figure
(i) The teeth of the driving and driven gears are subjected to stress in one direction only as
shown in Fig.(b). It is called ‘repeated’ stress. For this type of stress distribution,
1 1
 m   max and  a   max
2 2

where,
σ max. = maximum bending stress
σ m = mean stress
σa = stress amplitude
(ii) The teeth of the idler gear or planetary pinion are subjected to stress in both directions
as shown in Fig. (c). It is called ‘reversed’ stress. For this type of stress distribution,
σm = 0 and σa = σmax.
 Since the teeth are subjected to fluctuating stresses, endurance limit stress (Se) is the
criterion of design. Therefore, the maximum bending stress is equal to the endurance limit
stress of the gear tooth. The endurance limit stress of the gear tooth depends upon the
following factors:
1. Surface finish of the gear tooth
2. Size of the gear tooth
3. Reliability used in design
4. Stress concentration in the gear tooth
5. Gears rotating in one direction or both directions
6. Gears tooth subjected to stress in one direction or both directions
 In practice, it is difficult to get the above mentioned data for each and every case of gear
design.
 Earle Buckingham has suggested that the endurance limit stress of gear tooth is
approximately one-third of the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
 Therefore,

1
 b  S e  Sut
3

 In case of bronze gears, the endurance limit stress is taken as 40% of the ultimate tensile
strength.
 Lewis Form Factor (Y)

 It is function of tooth shape but not size and the point of application of load.
 It is depend upon, number of tooth, Tooth system and point of application of load.
 The value of Lewis form factor is obtained by using empirical relation

2.87
Y  0.484  for 20 0 full depth involute system
Z
2.64
Y  0.55  for 20 0 stub involute
Z
2.15
Y  0.39  for14.50 full depth invo lute syste m
Z
 Bending Failure criterion for Spur Gear

 In order to avoid the breakage of gear tooth due to bending, the beam strength should be
more than the effective force between the meshing teeth. Therefore,
Sb ≥ Peff

Sb = (FOS) x Peff
 Deciding the weaker between Pinion and Gear in Bending

 In the design of gears, it is required to decide the weaker between the pinion and gear.
Rewriting the Lewis equation,
Sb  mb bY
 It is observed that m and b are same for pinion as well as for gear. When different materials
are used, the product (σb x Y) decides the weaker between pinion and gear.

( b * Y ) p  ( b * Y )G Pinion is Wea ker

( b * Y ) p  ( b * Y )G Gear is We a ker

 The Lewis form factor Y is always less for a pinion compared with gear. When the same
material is used for the pinion and gear, the pinion is always weaker than the gear.
 Service Factor

 To determine the tangential component of the resultant force between two meshing teeth is
discussed. The component is calculated by using the following two equations:
60 *106 (kw) 2M t
Mt  Pt 
2n p d 'p
 The value of the tangential component, therefore, depends upon the rated power and rated
speed.
 In practical applications, the torque developed by the source of power varies during the work
cycle. Similarly, the torque required by the driven machine also varies. The two sides are
balanced by means of a flywheel.
 In gear design, the maximum force (due to maximum torque) is the criterion. This is
accounted by means of a service factor. The service factor Cs is defined as
Maximum Torque M t max Pt max
CS  CS  
rated torque Mt Pt
where (Pt) is the tangential force due to rated torque (Mt).
 Maximum tangential force is given by
Pt max  C s Cm Pt

 Load Distribution Factor/ Load Concentration factor (Cm)

To account the non-uniform distribution of load across the face width, this factor is used.

Service factor for speed reduction gearboxes

 Examples of Driving machines with different working characteristics

Examples of Driven machines with different working characteristics

 Effective Load on Gear Tooth

 When gears rotate at very low speed, almost at zero velocity, the transmitted load (Pt) can be
considered to be the actual force present between two meshing teeth.
 However, in most of the cases, the gears rotate at an appreciable speed and it becomes
necessary to consider the dynamic force resulting from the impact between mating teeth.
 The dynamic force is induced due to the following factors:
1. Inaccuracies of the tooth profile;
2. Errors in tooth spacing;
3. Misalignment between bearings;
4. Elasticity of parts; and
5. Inertia of rotating disks.
 There are two methods to account for the dynamic load—
1. Approximate estimation by the velocity factor in the preliminary stages of gear design
2. Precise calculation by Buckingham’s equation in the final stages of gear design.
 It is difficult to calculate the exact magnitude of dynamic load in the preliminary stages of
gear design. To overcome this difficulty, a velocity factor Cv developed by Barth is used.
 The effective load between two meshing teeth is given by,
Pt max Cs Cm Pt
Peff  Peff 
Cv Cv
where
Cv is velocity factor
Cs is Service factor
Cm is load distribution factor
The values of the velocity factor are as follows:
(i) For ordinary and commercially cut gears made with form cutters and with v < 10 m/s,
3
Cv  where v is the pitch line velocity in m/s.
3 v

(ii) For accurately hobbed and generated gears with v < 20 m/s,
6
Cv  where v is the pitch line velocity in m/s.
6v

(iii) For precision gears with shaving, grinding and lapping operations and with v > 20 m/s,
5.6
Cv  where v is the pitch line velocity in m/s.
5.6  v
d ' n
The pitch line velocity is given by, v 
60 *103
The disadvantages of the velocity factor method are as follows:
 The dynamic load depends upon a number of factors such as the mass of gears, mass
connected to the gear shaft and properties of the gear material, like modulus of a elasticity.
 A gear tooth of a material with low modulus of elasticity will deflect more than the gear tooth
of a material with higher modulus of elasticity, and other things being equal, will absorb the
energy of impact and reduce the dynamic load.
 Velocity factor method neglects these factors. It assumes that dynamic load depends only
upon pitch line velocity.
 Use of velocity factor is restricted to a limited range of pitch line velocities. It is not possible
to extrapolate the values.
 In the final stages of gear design, when gear dimensions are known, errors specified and the
quality of gears determined, the dynamic load is calculated by equations derived by Earle
Buckingham. The effective load is given by,
Peff  PtMax  Pd

Peff  C s Cm Pt  Pd
where, (Pd) is the dynamic load or additional load due to
dynamic conditions between two meshing teeth.
 Buckingham has used a term incremental dynamic load for (Pd). The dynamic load is given by,

21vCeb  Pt 
Pd 
21v  (Ceb  Pt )

where
Pd is dynamic load or incrementa l dynamic load (N)
v is pitch Line Velo city in m/ s
C is defor mation fac tor (N/mm)
e is sum o f errors b etween two meshing teeth (mm)
b is face width of t ooth (mm)
Pt is tan gential fo rce due to rated tor que
 Deformation factor (C)
It is depend upon the modulus of elasticity of materials for pinion and gear and the form of
tooth or pressure angle.
k
C where
 1 1 
   k is cons tan t dependin g upon the form of t ooth
E
 p E g 
 E p is mod ulus of el asticity o f pinion m aterial (N /mm 2 )
E g is mod ulus of el asticity o f Gear material (N/m m 2 )

 The values of k for various tooth form are as follows

k  0.107 for 14.50 full depth teeth
k  0.111 for 200 full depth teeth
k  0.115 for 20 0 stub teeth
 The incremental dynamic load (Pd) calculated by Buckingham’s equation is far more than the
corresponding load calculated by the velocity factor method.
 Very often, it is three to four times the load (Pt) due to power transmission. It has been
observed that in most of the practical cases, the actual dynamic load is less than that of the
calculated values by Buckingham’s equation.
 This is because the equation is mainly applicable to large gears with connected masses that
rotate at moderate speeds.
 The actual dynamic load is less in the following cases:
1. small gears transmitting low power;
2. high-speed light-load gears;
3. small gears on small shaft;
4. gear shafts up to 50 mm diameter
 Gears on small-diameter shaft easily twist through an angle equivalent to the effective tooth
error and the dynamic load is reduced.
 Equation of Error (e) in between two meshing teeth is given by
e  e p  eg
where
e p is error for pinion
eg is error f or Gear

 The error depends upon the quality of the gear and the method of manufacture. There are
twelve different grades from Gr. 1 to Gr. 12 in decreasing order of precision.
 The expected error on the gear tooth is considered to be equal to tolerance.
e 
 The tolerances for adjacent pitch error (e) are given in Table. These tolerances(Φ) are
calculated by using the following basic equation:
  m  0.25 d ' where
φ is toler ance facto r
m is mod ule (mm)
d' is pitc h circle d iamter (mm)

 The method of manufacture for gears depends upon the grade of the
gear.
1. Gears of Grade 11 and Grade 12 are manufactured by casting.
2. Gears of Grade 8 and Grade 9 require rough and fine hobbing.
3. Gears of Grade 6 are obtained by hobbing and rough grinding,
4. while Grade 4 requires shaving and finish grinding.
 Wear Strength of Gear Tooth

 The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when the contact stresses between two
meshing teeth exceed the surface endurance strength of the material.
 Pitting is a surface fatigue failure, characterized by small pits on the surface of the gear
tooth.
 In order to avoid this type of failure, the proportions of the gear tooth and surface properties,
such as surface hardness, should be selected in such a way that the wear strength of the
gear tooth is more than the effective load between the meshing teeth.
 The analysis of wear strength was done by Earle Buckingham, in his paper ‘The relation of
load to wear of gear teeth’, which was submitted before the American Gear Manufacturing
Association (AGMA) in 1926.
 Buckingham’s equation gives the wear strength of the gear tooth.
 Buckingham’s equation is based on Hertz theory of contact stresses. When two cylinders are
pressed together as shown in Fig., the contact stress is given by,
2P
c  ..........(a )
 bl
1
 2 1 1 
2

 2 P (1   )(  )
E E
b 1 2 
........(b)
 1 1  
 l    
 d
 1 d 2   where
σ c is max . value of compressive stesses (N/mm 2 )
P is force pres sin g two cyli nder toget her (N)
b is half width of d eformation (mm)
l is axial length of cylinder (mm)
d1&d 2 is dia. o f two cyli nder (mm)
E1&E2 is mod ulli of el asitcity o f two cyli nder material (N/mm 2 )
μ is possi on's ratio
 Due to deformation under the action of load P, a rectangular surface of width (2b) and length
(l) is formed between the two cylinders. The elliptical stress distribution across the width (2b)
is shown in Fig. (b) and (c).

 Substituting Eq. (b) in Eq. (a) and squaring both sides,

 1 1 
    
2 1  P   r1 r2   where r1, r2 are the radii of two cylinders.
c  2   ......(c)
 
 1    l   1
 
1 


 1E E 2 


 Substituting (μ = 0.3)
 1 1 
    
 P  r r 
 c2  0.35   1 2  ......(d )
 l   1 1 
  

  E1 E2  
  1 1 
    
2  P   r1 r2  
c  0.35  
l
   1 1 
   

  E1 E2   

 The above equation of the contact stress is based on the following assumptions:
1. The cylinders are made of isotropic materials.
2. The elastic limit of the material is not exceeded.
3. The dimensions r1, r2 are very large when compared to the width (2b) of the deformation.
 Equivalent contacting Cylinder

 The radii r1 and r2 in Eq. (d) are to be replaced by the radii of curvature at the pitch point.
d p' sin  d g' sin 
r1  and r2 
2 2
 There are two reasons for taking the radii of curvature at the
pitch point.
 The wear on the gear tooth generally occurs at or near the
pitch line. When only one pair of teeth carries the entire load,
the contact occurs at the pitch point.
 When the contact takes place at the top or at the bottom of the
tooth profile, usually two pairs of meshing teeth share the
load. The dynamic load is imposed on the gear tooth near the
pitch line area. Therefore, it is more reasonable to select the
radii of curvature at the pitch point.
1 1 2  1 1 
      
r r
 1 2 sin  d
 p' d ' g 

 A ratio factor Q is defined as,
2Z g 2Z g
Q    for extern al gear Q    for int ernal gear
Zg  Z p Zg  Z p

 Substituting, (d’p = mzp) and (d’g = mzg) in above Equation for external gear.

2d g'
Q
d g'  d p'

Therefore,
 1 1  d ' p d 'g 2
    
d
 p' d '  d ' p d 'g
g  Qd ' p

1 1 4
   
 r1 r2  Qd ' p sin 
 The force acting along the pitch line is PN. Therefore,

Pt
P  PN 
cos 

 The axial length of the gears is the face width b, i.e.,

l=b
Therefore the equation of contact stress for Gear is
 4 
 Pt 
  
2  cos    Qd ' p sin   
c  0.35  
 b 
   1 1 
    
E E2  
  1 
1.4 Pt
 c2  ..........(1)
bQd p' sin  cos   1  1 
 E2 E2 
 A load-stress factor K is defined as,
 c2 sin  cos   1 E  1 E 
K  2 2

1.4
 Substituting the above equation in Eq. (l),
Pt  bQd p' K

 This equation gives a relationship between the tangential force Pt and the corresponding

contact stress σc (or K).

 When the tangential force is increased, the contact stress also increases. Pitting occurs when
the contact stress reaches the magnitude of the surface endurance strength. The
corresponding value of Pt is called wear strength.
 Therefore, the wear strength is the maximum value of the tangential force that the tooth can
transmit without pitting failure.
 Replacing (Pt) by (Sw) in Equation of maximum tangential force

S w  bQd p ' K
where
S w is wear s trength of the gear tooth (N)
σ c is surfac e endurance strength of the ma terial (N/ mm2 )

 The above equation is known as Buckingham’s equation for wear

 The expression for the load-stress factor K can be simplified when both the gears are made of
steel with a 20° pressure angle. In this special case,
E1 = E2 = 206 000 N/mm2 and α = 20°
According to G Niemann
σc = 0.27 (BHN) kgf/mm2
= 0.27 (9.81)(BHN) N/mm2 where BHN is the Brinell Hardness Number.
Therefore,  c2 sin  cos   1 E  1 E   BHN 
2

K  2 2 K  0.156 
1.4  100 

2
 BHN 
K  0.16 
 100 
 The above equation is applicable only when both the gears are made of steel with a 20°
pressure angle.
 In order to avoid failure of the gear tooth due to pitting, the wear strength should be more
than the effective force between the meshing teeth.
For Numericals
Refer V.B.BHANDARI