WOOD EN S T R UC T U R E

Wooden Aircraft
The first airplane built by Wright brothers was from WOOD

WOOD was used on early aircraft because of its availability and

relatively high strength to weight ratio.

The cost of the additional hand labor needed for wood

construction and maintenance had cause wood aircraft to

become almost entirely superseded by those of all metal

construction.
 WOOD

Wood is not as strong as steel or aluminum, but;

 the construction can be so designed that the necessary strength is

achieved with corresponding savings in weight.

 Wood a/c structures are light, low cost ,high strength , minimum

special equipment for maintenance

Many designers prefer to use wooden spars in acrobatic aircraft because;

 wood will better withstand the bending loads imposed during aerobatics.
Unlike metal, wood does not weaken from fatigue.
Many light aircrafts are made of wood for their primary & secondary
structures ( spars , ribs, control surfaces )
 TYPE OF WOOD

There are 3 basic types of wood used for aircraft structure.

 Solid wood

 Laminated wood

 Plywood

 Solid wood is used for some aircraft wing spar that made of one solid piece cut
from a log.

 Laminated Wood is made of two or three piece of thin wood glued together
with grain running in the same direction

 Plywood consists of three or more layers of thin veneer glued together.

 LAMINATED WOOD

• Composed of a number of solid woods bonded together with the

grains running in the same directions

• more rigid than a piece of solid wood

• resist warpage better , more uniform strength, resist shape change

• commonly used for severely bent structures-tip bows, formers and

bulkheads
 PLYWOOD
• Composed of a number of plies (layers) of wood veneer assembled with the
grain layer at an angle of 45 o to 90 o to the adjacent layer

• The layers of wood are bonded with synthetic resin glue

( thermosetting ) assembled in a large heated hydraulic press

• better quality than commercial type (Mahogany& Birch)

Mahogany better gluing surface

• Advantages:
- resist cracking
- even strength
- co-efficient of expansion is negligible
 SPECIES OF WOOD

→ 2 basic species of wood are used for aircraft construction:

1. Hardwood

2. Softwood

 Hardwood come from Deciduous Trees having Broad Leaves

 Softwood come from Coniferous Trees with Needle-like or

Scale-like Leaves
SPRUCE
 Sitka spruce is most common used in aircraft structure
 Reason :- High strength to weight ratio and high quality of wood

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SITKA SPRUCE
DOUGLAS FIR
 The strength properties of Douglas Fir more the SPRUCE species
 It is much Heavier and more difficult to handle/work on it
 Has tendency to split.
NOBLE FIR
 This type slightly lighter than spruce type but all properties more
superior than spruce except hardness and shock resistance
 Noble fir used to make structural parts that subject to heavy
bending and compression loads. Eg: Spar , Spar flanges and cap
strips
BALSA
 Light wood, lacks structural strength
MAHOGANY

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Heavier and stronger than spruce. Used to make aircraft skin
QUALITY OF WOOD

 Grain Deviation
1. The wood must have a straight grain. It means all wood
fibers must be oriented parallel to the material’s longitudinal
axis.
2. Method :- The grain direction by putting a bit of free-flowing
ink on the wood. The ink is absorbed into the fibers along
the grain making it easier to identify.
 Knots
1. A point where a branch grew from the tree trunk. Maybe
round , oval or spiked in shape.
 Species of Strength Properties as Remarks
Wood compare to Spruce
Sitka Spruce 100% Excellent for all causes. Considered as
standard for this table.

Douglas Fir Exceeds spruce May be used as subtitle for spruce in

same size. Difficult to work with hand
tools. Gluing satisfactory.

White Pine 85% – 96% Excellent working qualities and uniform

in properties but somewhat low in
hardness and shock-resisting capacity.
Gluing satisfactory.

Western Hemlock Slightly exceeds spruce Less uniform in texture then spruce. May
be used as direct substitute for spruce.
Gluing satisfactory.
 Types Of Defects in Wood Material

Following are several examples of wood defects:

1. ‘Checks’

A lengthwise separation or crack of the wood that extends along the

wood grain.
It develops during drying and is commonly caused by differences in
radial and tangential shrinkage or because of uneven shrinkage of the
tissues in adjacent portions of the wood.

2. Shakes

A separation or crack along the grain, the greater part of which may
occur at the common boundary of two rings or within growth rings
3. Heartwood

The inner core of a woody stem or

log, extending from the pith to the
sap, which is usually darker in color.
This part of the wood contains dead
cells that no longer participate in the
life processes of the tree

4. Knot

That portion of a branch or limb that

is embedded in the wood of a tree
trunk, or that has been surrounded Figure: Several wood defects
by subsequent stem growth.
 INSPECTION OF WOOD STRUCTURES

Most wood damage is caused by conditions such as moisture, temperature,

and sunlight.

Because wood is an organic material, it is subject to mildew and rot unless

protected from moisture.

Keep wood airplanes in well ventilated hangars and take special care to
ensure that all of the drain and ventilation holes remain open.

If a ventilation hole becomes obstructed, changes in air temperature will

cause moisture to condense inside the structure, which will cause the wood
to deteriorate.
INSPECTION METHODS

When inspecting a wood structure aircraft, move it into a dry, well ‑ventilated
hangar.

One of the first steps is to check the moisture content of the wood using a
moisture meter.

If the moisture content is high, dry the wood structures before inspecting
further.

Wooden structures of the aircraft need to be dry to be able to effectively

determine the condition of the bonded joints.
The following are several inspection methods and associated equipment employed
for inspecting wooden structures.

1. MOISTURE METERING

Use to determine the moisture content of wood structure.

Wood that is too wet or too dry may compromise the strength and
integrity of the structure. (15 %)
A moisture meter reads the moisture content through a probe that is
inserted into a wooden member. (Marconi moisture meter)

2. TAPPING

The wood structure may be inspected for structural integrity by tapping

the suspect area with a light plastic hammer or screwdriver handle.
Tapping should produce a sharp, solid noise from a solid piece of wood.
If the wood area sounds hollow or feels soft, inspect further.
3. PROBING

If soft, hollow wood is found during the tap test, probe the suspect area with
a sharp metal tool to determine whether the wood is solid.

Ideally, the wood structure should feel firm and solid when probed.

4. PRYING

Use prying to determine whether a bonded joint shows signs of separation.

Light prying is sufficient to check the integrity of a joint.

If there is any movement between the wood members of the joint, a failure of
the bond is confirmed.
5. SMELLING

Smell is a good indicator of musty or moldy areas.

When removing the inspection panels, be aware of any odors that may
indicate damage to the wood structure.
Odor is an essential indicator of possible wood deterioration.
Musty and moldy odors reveal the existence of moisture and possible
wood rot.

6. VISUAL INSPECTION

Visual inspection techniques are used to determine any visible signs of

damage.
Both internal and external visual examinations are imperative to a
complete inspection of the wood structure.
 REPAIR OF WOODEN STRUCTURE

The basic criterion for any aircraft repair is that the repaired structure must
not only be as strong as the original structure, but the rigidity of the
structure and the aerodynamic shape must also be equivalent.

Materials used for the repair of a wooden structure should be the same as
the original unless they have become obsolete.

If substitutions are made, they must produce a repair that meets the basic
requirements of the manufacturer and the authority.
 Plywood Skin Repair

Aircraft that incorporate plywood skins normally carry a large amount of

stress from the flight load.

Therefore, repairs to plywood skins are made in strict accordance with the
recommendations of the aircraft manufacturer.

There are several types of plywood patches repair

i. Splayed Patch

ii. Surface Patch (External patch)

iii. Plug Patch

iv. Scarfed Patch

Splayed Patch

Small holes in thin plywood skin may be repaired by a splayed

patch.

This type of patch is used if the skin is less than or equal to 1/10
inch thick and the hole can be cleaned out to a diameter of less
than 15 thickness (15T)

See figure in the next slide.

Figure: Splayed patch
 AIRCRAFT ADHESIVES / GLUES

The adhesive used in aircraft structural repair plays a critical role in the
overall finished strength of the structure.

The maintenance technician must only use those types of adhesives that
meet the performance requirements necessary for use in aircraft structures.

Not every type of glue is appropriate for use in all aircraft repair situations.

Because of its importance, use each type of glue in strict accordance with
the aircraft and adhesive manufacturer's instructions.
A strong joint is obtained when there is a complete contact of glue and wood
surfaces over the entire joint area , unbroken by foreign particles and air bubbles.

Two assembly methods:

Open assembly – glue applied to both surfaces and allow time before putting it
together. This thickens the glue and the set up time of the glue is faster.
Do not exposed more than 20 minutes. ( Recommended)
Closed assembly – The parts are assembled immediately after application of glue

Gluing Pressure ( held by clamps,nails,weight )or screws

~ to squeeze glue into thin film
~ to force air from joint
~ to produce intimate contact
~Softwood 125 – 150 psi and hardwood 150 – 200 psi..
 Types of Adhesives
1. Casein Glue

Most older airplanes were glued with casein glue, which was a powdered
glue made from milk.
Casein glue deteriorates over the years after it is exposed to moisture in the
air and to wide variations in temperature.
Many of the more modern adhesives are incompatible with casein glue.

2. Plastic resin glue

This type of glue usually comes in a powdered form.

Mix it with water and apply it to one side of the joint.
Apply a hardener to the other side of the joint, clamp the two sides
together and the adhesive will begin to set.
Plastic resin glue rapidly deteriorates in hot, moist and under cyclic
stresses, making it obsolete for all aircraft structural repairs.
Resorcinol glue

It’s two‑part synthetic resin glue consisting of a resin and a hardener and is the most
water‑resistant of the glues used.
The glue is ready for use as soon as the appropriate amount of hardener and resin has
been thoroughly mixed.
Resorcinol adhesive are one of the most common types of glue used in aircraft wood
structure repair.

Phenol‑formaldehyde glue

It’s the most commonly used in the manufacturing of aircraft ‑grade plywood.
This glue requires high curing temperatures and pressures making it impractical for use in
the field.

Epoxy resins

This are two‑part synthetic resins that generally consist of a resin and a hardener mixed
together in specific quantities.
Epoxies have excellent working properties.
• There are still many requirements for fabric – covered
certificated a/c

• It is cheap , easier to install and repair , light and durable.

• Early aircraft constructed using organic and inorganic

fabric are used

 Organics – cotton and linen

 Inorganic fibers – Polyester and fiberglass

• Polyester fabrics are most durable and strong

The purpose of the fabric covering of an aircraft are :-
a) To provide a light airproof skin for lifting and control
surfaces
b) To provide structural strength for weak structure
c) To cover non-lifting parts of an aircraft to reduce drag,
sometimes forming a fairing
d) To protect the structure.

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 COVERING PROCEDURES

1. Determine fabric strength

 Fabric-covered aircraft has their own value which is proof by airworthiness
 If the strength of fabric drops, It means the fabric should be repair or change.
Method used to determine fabric covering strength:-
a) SEYBOTH TESTER
b) MAULE TEST INSTRUMENT

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Seyboth and Maule fabric strength testers.
SEYBOTH TESTER

 These tester called “punch tester” because of their method

 Designed for cotton- and linen-covered aircraft
 Punch test accuracy depends on the individual device
calibration, total coating thickness, brittleness, types of
coatings and fabric.
 Color band indicated the amount of forces need to punch
through the fabric.
 Yellow – Fabric is stronger
 Green – Good quality fabric
 Red – Fabric is weak

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 MAULE TEST INSTRUMENT

 Similar to the Seyboth tester- Measure the amount of pressure

applied directly to fabric.
 Consist a calibrated spring inside tubular housing
 The reading were indicated on a scale. If fabric fails, the Maule
test reach at certain point on strength scale
 If fabric has adequate strength, the tester will not penetrate the
fabric and repair is not required.

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 Inspection Method For Fabric

Inspection and repair of fabric should be performed as routine

procedures during the life of a fabric covering.

Inspect the interior of the fabric using appropriate mirrors and flash
lights.

Pay special attention to the material around control cable inlets,

inspection rings and drain grommets, looking for areas of physical
wear and general deterioration.

Make sure that no light penetrate the fabric.

Grommets are used for reinforcing holes in textiles for drainage ,lacing
or inspection

Figure: - Example of grommets

 Repair of fabric covering

The type of repairs needed to restore the fabric to its original strength
vary depending on the damage and type of fabric.

Much of the damage that requires a patch results from accidental

physical damage to the fabric, often referred to as hangar rush.

Many of these repairs will be on fabric covering that was applied

using new adhesives.

Common example is to repair L-shaped tears in the fabric.

 Repair L-Shaped Tears

1 2

Remove the existing finish and Using curve needle, sew the patch
dope down to the first layer of dope with baseball stitch. Spacing for
using dull knife blade each stitch one-quarter of inch.
3 4

Apply doped at sewed area for Apply full coats dope at sewed area
coating
5 6