@2a - BJT Fundamentals

BJT Basics
• Fundamentals: definition, structure,

operations and characteristics
• Biasing of BJT
• Modeling of BJT and small signal analysis
• DC and AC load line analysis
• BJT amplifier configurations
• BJT applications
Transistor
Transistor is a three-terminal device whose output current,
voltage, and/or power are controlled by its input current/voltage.
– We may regard a transistor
as a controlled voltage or
current source.
In communication system, transistor is used as the primary

component in the amplifier.
Although in modern electronics, amplifiers are more conveniently
implemented using integrated circuits (IC) like operational amplifiers,
understanding of transistor amplifiers is useful as
 they serve as the building blocks of integrated-circuit amplifiers.
 they are used in high frequency applications e.g. in radio communications
circuits, where discrete transistor amplifiers are still popularly in use.
The analysis of BJT as amplifier is studied. They are divided into
 dc biasing in amplifier circuits,
 ac small-signal analysis by modeling the ac amplifier as a two-port network
 ac large-signal analysis which uses ac load line to determine the maximum
unclipped
In digital computer electronics, the transistor is used as a high-
speed electronic switch.
Types of Transistors
According to the physics of the device, we can classify
transistors into two main classes:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Field-Effect Transistor (FET)
The single term transistor is generally used to identify as the
BJT, the field-effect transistor is simply referred to as a FET.
3
Construction of npn and pnp transistor
npn transistor:
n-type
a p-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductors p-type
n-type
pnp transistor:
p-type
an n-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two p-type
semiconductors n-type
p-type
BJT
 The three regions of a BJT are
connected to the outside world
through the three leads.
 A bipolar junction transistor is
constructed with three regions.
 the emitter region (E), the base
region (B), and the collector
region (C).
BJT (cont’d)
B
 The base region (B) is made very thin and is much more
lightly doped compared to other regions.
 The collector region (C) usually has a large surface area and
is lightly doped compared to the emitter.
E C
 The emitter region (E) is the heaviest doped region.
0.001 inches
The planer construction of BJT: 0.150 inches
Emitter Base
Terminal Terminal
Emitter Region (E)
Base Region (B)

Metal Oxide
Insulating Layer
Collector Region (C)
Collector
Collector
Terminal
Terminal
Transistor packaging
Refer to the manufacturer’s data
books for BJT packaging details.
Some transistors have their

terminals labelled with
C: collector,
B: base,
E: emitter.
BJT circuit symbol
• npn transistor • pnp transistor
Construction Circuit symbol Construction Circuit symbol

Collector Collector
C
C
n p
Base p Base n
B B
n p
E E
Emitter Emitter
The arrow is always drawn on the emitter terminal.
The arrow always points toward the n-type material.
The arrow indicates the direction of flow for emitter current.
BJT junctions
 The transistor is made up of three separate semiconductor material.
 The three materials are joined together in such a way as to form two pn junctions.
 The two junctions in a BJT are referred to as the base-emitter junction (B-E junction)
and the base-collector junction (B-C junction).
C
E n p n
Emitter-base Collector-base
junction diode junction diode
E C
B
Operation of npn BJT
When n, p, n material join together: two depletion layers have been formed at base-
emitter junction (B-E junction) and base-collector junction (B-C junction).
n p n
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
C
E + - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
+ - - +
Depletion layer B Depletion layer

at B-E junction at B-C junction
BJT operation
 In order for the transistor to operate properly as an amplifier, the two pn junctions
must be correctly biased with external dc voltage.
 For both npn and pnp transistors to operate actively as an amplifier, B-E junction must
be forward biased, B-C junction must be reverse biased.
npn transistor pnp transistor
Collector biased
Collector
biased
Reverse
Reverse –
+ Or VBC>0
Or VBC<0
VB>VC
VB<VC – n
+ p
Base p Base n
+
VB<VE and –
VB>VE and p
VBE=0.7V
n VEB=0.7V
– +
Or VBE>0 Or VEB>0
Forward Forward
biased Emitter biased Emitter
Operation of npn BJT as an amplifier
Depletion layer
Electron
flow
n p n
+ - - - + +
ee + - - - + +
ee + - - - + + C
ee
+ - - - + +
e
E ee
+ - - - + +
ee
ee
+ - - - + +
ee
+ - - - + +
+ - - - + +
ee
+ - - - + +
- VBE + – VBC +
 In normal operating conditions (BJT as an amplifier)
 The base-collector is reverse biased => no current can flow down
 The base-emitter junction is forward biased (0.6-0.7V) => the diode “contact potential barrier” can be
overcome => Electrons can go to base, called base injection. These electrons are minority carriers,
which are strongly attracted/captured by the collector, causing the current flow down from C->E
 The base current is very small (µA) => we use a small base current to induce a large collector current: I C =
IB
BJT operation (cont’d)
 There are two different electron-flows in a normal npn transistor
operation.
 One from the emitter region to the base region of the transistor and
is called the base current IB
 The other from the emitter region to the collector region and is
called the collector current IC. Collector current (IC) comprises two
components:
 Majority carriers (electrons)Ifrom  IE
theemitter
C majority
I reverse-biased
 Minority carriers (holes) from  I BC junction → leakage current, ICBO
C min ority CBO
I C  I E  I CBO
I C  I E
 Total collector current (IC);
 Since leakage current ICBO is usually so small that it can be ignored.
 The electron-flow which goes into the emitter region from the
external voltage source, is called the emitter current IE.
 The emitter current is made up of the base current and the collector
npn BJT current
 The emitter current IE always flows out of the C
emitter terminal.
IC
 The base current IB flows into the base terminal.
IB
 The collector current IC flows into the collector B
terminal.
IE
 VBE ≈ 0.6 V when the transistor turns on.
E
 Never try to stick a large voltage across VBE
because it may produce enormous currentor may IE = I B + I C
just kill the device!
 β is a “bad” parameter. Don’t trust the databook. Its
value can vary to ±50% or more.
 IC = β.IB holds only under some carefully set
conditions. We’ll look at it later.
pnp transistor
 In a pnp transistor, holes in C
the emitter region swamp
across the junction when the IC
emitter-base junction is IB
forward biased. B
 The emitter current IE always
flows into the emitter terminal. IE
 The base current IB flows out
of the base terminal. E
 The collector current IC flows

out of the collector terminal. IE = I B + I C
Transistor Current Gain
 The ratio of the collector current IC and the emitter current IE of a bipolar
transistor is known as the DC common-base current gain DC (DC alpha or hFB in
the h-parameter) of the transistor.
DC has a value between 0.97 to 0.998.
I
 DC or C I C   DC I E
IE
 The ratio of the collector current IC and the base current IB is known as the DC
common-emitter current gain βDC (DC beta or hFE in the h-parameter) of the
transistor.
 The value of βDC can vary from less than 10 to a few hundreds.
IC
 DC or I C   DC I B
IB
 Both αDC and βDC have no dimension.

Transistor Current Gain (cont’d)
 The relationship between βDC and DC are as following:
 DC  DC
 DC   DC 
1   DC 1   DC
 Normally, βDC (DC beta) >100. e.g., the 2N3904 npn transistor has a minimum βDC of 200.
 αDC  1 with high value of βDC.
 If αDC  1, IC  IE, Example:

For a βDC = 200
e.g. If αDC = 0.995,
 IC = αDCIE = 0.995 IE  DC
 DC 
1   DC
If IE = 1mA, then IC = 0.995mA
200
 DC 
 For βDC 50, IC  IE.
1  200
 0.995
• The value of βDC (DC beta) is typically between 50 and 300.
Therefore IC can be 50 or 300 times larger than IB depending
on the transistor used.
• The collector current IC is directly proportional to the base

current IB.
• The amount of collector current IC flowing into the transistor

can be controlled by the base current IB. Because of this, a
bipolar junction transistor is said to be a current controlled
device.
 It is important to realise that both the base current IB and the collector
current IC are dependent on the base-emitter junction bias voltage VBE
which must be forward biased.
 For the base current IB to change, the bias voltage VBE must first
change. But the changes in VBE is very small for large changes in IB.
(Refer to diode I-V curve)
 For all practical purposes, the base-emitter bias voltage VBE is

assumed to be constant.
VBE =0.7 volts for silicon made BJT,
VBE =0.3 volts for germanium made BJT
 The collector-base voltage VCB also affects the collector current IC, but
the amount is too insignificant and is ignored here for simplicity.
Equations of Operation
  v BE  
iE  I ES exp   1 I s  I ES
  VT  
 v BE 
iC  I s exp 
iE  iC  iB  VT 
iC iC 
  
iB 1  
iE
iC  iB
21
22
Transistor input characteristic (IB~VBE)
-
+
A
RB
= 10kΩ IB
VBB VCC
= 5V RVB RVC = 25V
+
+
VBE VCE V
V
- -
 The input characteristic is a plot of IB versus VBE curves while keeping VCE constant.
 One ammeter and two voltmeters are used to measure I B, VBE and VCE respectively.
 Rheostat RVB is used to set the base current IB, and rheostat RVC is used to adjust the
voltage drop across the collector and the emitter terminals VCE of the transistor.
Transistor input characteristic (IB~VBE) (cont’d)
-
+
A
RB
= 10kΩ IB
VBB RVB VCC
= 5V RVC
= 25V
+
+
VBE VCE V
V
- -
1. By adjusting the RVB rheostat the base current IB can be set to some convenient values.
2. When adjusting the base current IB the collector-emitter voltage VCE varies. Hence, to set
VCE back to its previous value, RVC is adjusted.
3. When adjusting RVC, the base current IB shifts away from its previous set value. Resistor RVB
is then re-adjusted. These processes continue until both IB and VCE are set at the desired
value.
4. Then, the base-emitter input voltage V BE is measured by the voltmeter and recorded.
VBE (V) VCE=0.5V VCE=1V VCE=5V VCE=10V
Plot IB~VBE
IB=2A 0.659 0.659 0.659 0.659
IB=10A 0.704 0.706 0.708 0.708
IB=20A 0.729 0.733 0.735 0.738
IB=30A 0.746 0.753 0.756 0.757
IB (A)
VCE = 0.5 V
VCE = 1 V
30 VCE = 5 V
VCE =10 V
20
10
VBE (V)
0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Transistor input characteristic (IB~VBE) (cont’d)
 The input characteristic curve is similar to that of a
pn junction diode I~V curve.
 The input current IB remains almost negligible for input voltage

VBE below its barrier potential 0.55V.
 The base current IB starts to increase when the base-emitter

voltage VBE goes beyond 0.6V.
 The base current IB increases rapidly (linearly) after the base-

emitter voltage VBE exceeds 0.65V.
 The characteristic curve is also slightly dependent on the

collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Detailed BJT characteristics IB(VBE)
• Input characteristics (IB versus VBE)
– Obviously, VBE and IB are related by diode
characteristic.
27
Detailed BJT characteristics IB(VBE)
28
Transistor output characteristic (IC~VCE)
-
+
A
-
+
A IC
RB
= 10kΩ IB C
VBB RVB VCC
= 5V RVC
= 25V
+
VCE V
-
 The output characteristic is a plot of IC versus VCE curves while keeping IB constant.
 Two ammeters and one voltmeter are used to measure I B, IC and VCE respectively.
 By adjusting the RVB rheostat the base current IB can be set to some convenient values.
 To measure the collector current IC and the collector-emitter voltage V CE, RVC is adjusted.
 While adjusting the rheostat RVC the base current IB varies. To set IB back to its previous value, RVB is re-
adjusted.
 A range of IC and VCE measurements can be collected while keeping I B constant.
VCE=0.5V VCE=1V VCE=5V VCE=10V
Plot IC~VCE IC (mA)
IB=2A 0.291 0.299 0.306 0.307
IB=10A 1.316 1.328 1.339 1.352
IB=20A 2.51 2.52 2.59 2.65
IB=30A 3.71 3.74 3.85 3.95
IC (mA)
IB = 30A
4
3
IB = 20A
2
IB = 10A
1
IB = 2A
VCE (V)
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Detailed BJT characteristics IC(VCE)
31
Transistor output characteristic (IC~VCE) (cont’d)
 At low base current IB, say less
Saturation
than 40µA, the collector current IC IC (mA) region
remains relatively constant IB = 30A
throughout the entire range of
4
VCE. This is known as the active
region.
 When IB goes beyond this value, 3 Active region

IC increases linearly with VCE. IB = 20A
When the collector-emitter
voltage VCE is less than 0.5/0.3
volt (VCE(sat)), IC increases very 2
rapidly with IB. This region is IB = 10A
known as the saturation region.
 The region under the IB = 0 line, is 1

known as the cut-off region. IB = 2A
The collector current corresponds
to the IB = 0 line, is the leakage IB=0A
current.
6 7 8 9 10 VCE (V)
1 2 3 4 5
Cut-off region
Saturation region
 When both the base-emitter junction (B-E) and the base-collector
junction (B-C) are forward biased. The transistor is saturated.
 In the saturation region, VCE(sat) < 0.5/0.3 volts.

 The base-collector (B-C) junction is forward biased.
For an npn transistor;

VBE = 0.7 V, and say VCE(sat) = 0.2 V
Then, VBC = VBE –VCE(sat) = 0.7 V – 0. 2V = 0.5V
Or VCB = VCE(sat) – VBE = 0.2 V – 0. 7V = –0.5V
Which means, the collector terminal (n-type) potential is lower than the
base terminal (p-type) potential by 0.5 volts, i.e. forward bias.
Active region
When the base-emitter junction (B-E) is forward biased, and the base-
collector junction (B-C) is reverse biased. The transistor is active.
In the active region, the IC value is independent on VCE.
In the active region, the collector current IC is wholly controlled by the
base current IB and IC is completely dependent on IB.
Active region is the most commonly used operating region for
amplification purposes.
The active region is also called the linear region whereby the collector
current IC is linearly dependent on the base current IB.
IC = βDC IB at a constant VCE value.
This equation holds true only if the transistor is operating in the active or
the linear region.
This effect of changing βDC is more evident when we consider the effect of
temperature.
Cut-off region
When the base-collector junction (B-C) is reversed biased and the base-emitter
junction (B-E) is reverse biased, or not fully forward biased at 0.7 V, i.e. VBE < 0.7 V,
The transistor is cut-off.
In cut-off region, IB = 0, IC  0 except for the collector to emitter leakage current.
Breakdown region
The transistor will breakdown if the collector-emitter voltage V CE or its collector current IC
surpasses its maximum allowed value.
These maximum allowed values are usually specified in the transistor’s data book by the
manufacturer of the transistor.
When the VCE surpasses its maximum value, both IC and VBC increase drastically until the
transistor burns itself up due to the excessive heat generated.
The Breakdown Region is not shown in the plot as it is beyond the various I B marking on the
output characteristic curves.
Transfer (static) characteristic, IC~IB
 The transfer characteristic (or the current gain) of a bipolar junction transistor is
simply a plot of the collector current IC ~ IB for various fixed values of the collector-
emitter voltage VCE.
 This can be either obtained experimentally or determined from the output
characteristics.
 To experimentally obtain the transfer characteristic, the collector-emitter voltage V CE is
set at a selected value, then vary the base current I B and record the corresponding
collector current IC .
 The base current is adjusted in convenient steps. At each step, the value of the
collector current is measured and recorded.
 The transfer characteristics (IC versus IB) are plotted for the selected value of VCE.
IC
RB
= 10kΩ
VBB RVB RVC VCC
= 5V = 25V
IB VCE
Transfer (static) characteristic (cont’d)
The transfer characteristic can also be obtained from the output characteristic:
1. Draw a vertical line corresponds to the selected collector-emitter voltage V CE.
2. This vertical line cuts the output characteristic line corresponding to a base current I B. The
collector current IC is read from the vertical axis at the intersecting point.
3. The transfer characteristic is then plotted with the values of I C and IB.
4. DC can be obtained from the transfer characteristic.
IC (mA) VCE=6V IC (mA)

IB = 30A VCE=6V
4 4
3 3
IB = 20A
2 2
IC
IB = 10A
IB
1 1
IB = 2A DC= IC/IB IB(A)
VCE (V)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 20 30
Transfer (static) characteristic (cont’d)
Static Transfer Characteristic
VCE=6V
VCE=2V
Junction biasing condition for Saturation, Active and Cut-
off operation of npn transistor
Saturation operation (use in switching operation)
The Base-Emitter junction (B-E) must be forward biased with VBE = 0.7 V,
The Base-Collector junction (B-C) must be forward biased, VBC > 0 V.
E C Example:
n p n
For a npn transistor, VB=1.2V, VE=0.5V,
– –
VC=0.6V, determinate its operating region.
Solution:
VBE = 0.7V + + VBC > 0 V
VBE=VB–VE=1.2–0.5=0.7V >0
B --- BE junction is forward biased
VBC=VB–VC=1.2–0.6=0.6V >0
Note:
--- BC junction is forward biased
VBC = VB –VC = – VCB
VBE = VB –VE = –VEB ∴ Transistor is in saturation region.
Junction biasing condition for Saturation, Active and
Cut-off operation of npn transistor (cont’d)
Active operation (use in amplification operation)
The Base-Emitter junction (B-E) must be forward biased with VBE = 0.7 V,
The Base-Collector junction (B-C) must be reverse biased, VBC < 0 V.
Example:
E C
n p n For a npn transistor, VB=1.2V, VE=0.5V,
– +
Solution:
VBE=VB–VE=1.2–0.5=0.7V >0
VBE = 0.7V + – VBC <0 V
--- BE junction is forward biased
B VBC=VB–VC=1.2–2.6=–1.4V <0
Note: --- BC junction is reverse biased
VBC = VB –VC = – VCB
VBE = VB –VE = –VEB ∴ Transistor is in active region.
Junction biasing condition for Saturation, Active and
Cut-off operation of npn transistor (cont’d)
Cut-off operation (use in switching operation)
The Base-Emitter junction (B-E) is either
not biased at all VBE = 0 V, or reverse biased VBE < 0 V, or
forward biased but VBE < 0.7 V.
The Base-Collector junction (B-C) is reversed biased
Example:
E C
n p n For a npn transistor, VB=0.7V, VE=0.3V,
+/– +
Solution:
VBE<0 VBE=VB–VE=0.7–0.3=0.4V <0.7V
Or VBE <0.7V VBC <0 V
–/+ –
--- BE junction is not fully forward biased
B
VBC=VB–VC=0.7–2.6=–1.9V <0
Note: --- BC junction is reverse biased
VBC = VB – VC = – VCB
VBE = VB –VE = –VEB ∴ Transistor is in cut-off region.
Summary of npn BJT operating region
Base-Emitter junction Base-Collector Operating region

VBE junction
VBC
VBE>0 and VBC>0

VBE=0.7V forward biased Saturation
forward biased
VBE>0 and VBC<0
VBE=0.7V reverse biased Active
forward biased
VBE<0 and VBC<0
Cut-off
Or VBE<0.7V reverse biased
reverse biased or not
fully forward biased
• Typical operations
– 1. Cut-off
– 2. Active operation
– 3. Saturation
• Determining factors:
– How large is IB or VBE
– How large is RL
43
• Cut-off
– When the B-E junction is not forward-biased,
the transistor is basically not doing anything.
– This is called CUT-OFF.
44
• Active operation
– When the following holds:
IC = βIB
the BJT is said to be in active operation.
– This is the case of current amplification.
– But we need ICRL < 10V
45
• Condition for active operation: ICRL<VCC
46
• Saturation
– When VCE is reduced to 0, the BJT is saturated
47
• What makes it saturated?
48
• Application: BJT as a switch
49
Applications of BJT
Two major applications of BJT.
(1) switching applications and (2) linear amplifiers.
(1) BJT AS A SWITCH

Closed switch Open switch
VCC
VCC VCC
VCC
RC
RC RC
RC
IC(sat) IC = 0 A
RB
IB RB
C Q VCE(off) C
Q VCE(sat) 0V
VBB
VBE E E
IC (mA)
IC(sat) Point A
(ON)
Operating points
on BJT output
Point B
(OFF)
characteristic
VCE(off) VCE (V)
VCC = 24 V
BJT drives a LED
In Figure 1, the properties of BJT
R V =I R
and LED are given as: C RC F C
BJT rating: VBE = 0.7 V, I

C(sat)=I F
V
VCE(sat) = 0.2 V, and BR
F
v = 5V Q V
βDC (min) = 50 in(on)
v
in
CE
v = 0V V
LED: VF = 2.5 V, and
in(off) BE
I = 30 mA
Figure 1
Determine the appropriate values for resistors
RC and RB to be used in the circuit.
Solution
Power rating of RC :
KVL for the output circuit,
VCC = IF RC + VF + V CE(sat) PRC = ICVRC
= 28.4m x 21.3 = 0.605 W.
Current limiting resistor RC:
Select RC = 750 , 1 Watt.
RC = (VCC – VF – VCE(sat) ) / IF Base current: IB = I C(sat) / βDC(min)
= (24 – 2.5 – 0.2) / (30m) = IF / βDC
= 21.3 / 30m = 710  = (30m) / 50 = 0.6 mA
Select higher value of RC = 750  Base resistance:
to protect the LED. RB = (v in(on) – VBE ) / IB
The operating collector current:
= (5 – 0.7) / (0.6m) = 7.166 k
IC = VRC / RC
Select lower value of RB = 6.8 k, 1/4 watt to
= 21.3 / 750 = 28.4 mA
ensure that IC is operating in saturation region.
BJT drives a relay
In Figure 5.2.2, the properties of the components are given as: VCC = 12 V
BJT rating: VBE = 0.7 V, V = 0.1 V, and βDC (min) = 70 IC Relay
Normally open relay: coil voltage, VR = 12 V, coil resistance, RR = 730 Ω
Diode: select a diode with a PIV rating of at least 100V. D1
Select an appropriate resistors RB to be used in the circuit.
RB
Solution vin(on) = 5V Q VCE
vin
vin(off) = 0V VBE
When BJT is ‘on’,
KCL: IC(sat) = IRC + IR
Figure 2
Saturation current: IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(sat) ) [RC // RR]
= (VCC – VCE(sat) ) [(RC + RR) / (RCRR)]
= (12 V – 0.1 V) [(1 k + 730 ) / (1 k x 730 )]
= 28.2 mA
Base current: IB = IC(sat) / βDC (min) = 28.2 mA / 70
= 0.403 mA
Base resistance: RB = (vin(on) – VBE ) / IB (KVL: vin(on) = IB RB + VBE )
= (5 V – 0.7 V) / (0.403 mA)
= 10.67 k
Select lower value of RB = 10.7 k, 1/4 watt to ensure that IC is
operating in saturation region.
53
Biasing conditions exercise Solution:
Transistor Q1:
Determine the operating region of the silicon-made
npn transistor with the potential (with respect to VBE =VB–VE=7.3V–7.1V=0.2V< 0.7V
the ground potential) at each of the terminal as -- BE Not fully forward biased, IB0.
follows: VBC =VB–VC =7.3V–9.4V = –2.1V<0
-- BC Reverse Biased
∴Transistor Q1 operates in the
cut-off region.
7.1 V 7.3 V 9.4 V
Transistor Q2:
4.2 V 4.9 V 4.3 V VBE =VB–VE =4.9V – 4.2V = 0.7 V>0
-- BE Fully Forward Biased
4.6 V 5.3 V 7.9 V VBC =VB–VC =4.9V–4.3V = 0.6V > 0V
-- BC Forward Biased
E C ∴Transistor Q2 operates in
n p n the saturation region.
VE VBE VBC
Transistor Q3:
VC
B VBE =VB–VE =5.3V – 4.6V = 0.7 V >0
VB -- BE Fully Forward Biased
0V VBC =VB–VC =5.3V–7.9V =–2.6V <0V
Ground ---\ BC Reverse Biased ∴Transistor Q3
Potential operates in
the active region.
Solution:
Exercise Transistor Q1:
VBE =0.7 V>0
Determine the operating region ---BE forward biased,
of the silicon-made npn VBC =VBE–VCE=VB–VE–(VC–VE)=VB–VE–VC+VE
transistor in the following =0.7 V – 1.2 V = – 0.5 V<0
table: -- BC Reverse Biased
\ Transistor Q1 operates in active region.
Q1 VBE=0.7V VCE=1.2V Transistor Q2:

VBE = – VEB =–(–0.7)=0.7 V>0
Q2 VEB=–0.7V VCE=0.3V -- BE Forward Biased
VBC =VBE – VCE =0.7 V – 0.3 V=0.4V>0
-- BC Forward Biased
Q3 VBE=0.3V VEC=–2.5V Transistor Q2 operates in saturation region.
Transistor Q3:
VBE =0.3 V<0.7V
---BE not Fully Forward Biased
∵VCE=–VEC=–(–2.5)=2.5V
VBC =VBE –VCE =0.3–2.5=–2.2 V < 0 V
-- BC Reverse Biased
\ Transistor Q3 operates in cut-off region.
Example Solution:
Step 1:Find IB from input circuit:
In the following transistor circuit,
the input voltage Vin=2V, DC=150, Vin=IBRB+VBE
calculate IB, IC, VCE and VBC, IB=(Vin–VBE)/RB=(2–0.7)/10KΩ=0.13mA
determine the transistor
operating mode. Step 2: Find IC
IC=DCIB=1500.13mA=19.5mA
Step 3: Find VCE from output circuit:

VCC= ICRC+VCE
12 =19.5mA520+VCE
RC VCE=12–10.14=1.86V
520Ω
RB IC + Step 4: find VBC
10kΩ C VCC
B – VBC=VBE–VCE=0.7–1.86=–1.16V
VCE 12V
+ IB
Vin E Step 5: determine transistor operating mode:
IE
– ∵VBE=0.7V>0
-- BE junction is forward biased
∵VBC=–1.16V<0
-- BC junction is reverse biased
∴Transistor is in active region.
Important Small-Signal Characteristic
57
• What is gm?
58
• A bit more precise
59
• A bit more precise
60
Operating Limits of a BJT
 Each transistor is designed for
some specific applications and
has a set of maximum ratings
such as:
the maximum collector current
rating IC(max),
the maximum collector-emitter
voltage rating VCE(max) , and
the maximum dissipated power
rating PD(max).
 Transistors should operate

within its maximum ratings to
avoid being damaged. This
means that:
the operating collector current
IC  IC(max) ,
VCE  VCE(max) ,
PD  PD(max). The dissipated power of a transistor is given by
the following equation.
PD = VCE IC
Example
Plot the operating limits of the
transistor having a maximum collector VCE(V) 10 20 30 40 50 60
current IC(max) = 50mA, a maximum
collector-emitter voltage VCE(max) = 60V, IC(mA) 50 25 16.7 12.5 10 8.33
and a maximum power dissipation
PD(max) = 500mW.
IC(mA)
Solution 60 IC(max) =50mA
Step 1: First draw the horizontal line I
C(max) = 50mA at IC axis.
50
Step 2: Next draw the vertical line VCE(max)
40
= 60V at VCE axis.
Step 3: 30
∵PD(max) = 500mW = IC x VCE
∴ IC = 500mW / VCE 20
Select some convenient values of V CE
10 Safe operating
and calculate the corresponding IC as VCE(max) =60V
region
shown in table. 0
Step 4: Plot IC verse VCE curve. 10 20 30 40 50 60VCE(V)
Exercise VCE(V) 10 20 30 40 50
Plot the operating limits of the transistor
having a maximum collector current
IC(max) = 40mA, a maximum collector- IC(mA) 40 20 13.3 10 8
emitter voltage VCE(max) = 50V, and a
maximum power dissipation PD(max) =
400mW.
IC(mA)
Solution
Step 1: First draw the horizontal line 60
IC(max)=40mA at IC axis.
50 IC(max) =40mA
Step 2: Next draw the vertical line VCE(max)
=50V at VCE axis. 40
Step 3:
∵PD(max) = 400mW = IC x VCE 30
∴ IC = 400mW / VCE
Select some convenient values of VCE 20
and calculate the corresponding IC as 10 Safe operating region VCE(max) =50V

shown in table.
Step 4: Plot IC verse VCE curve. 0
10 20 30 40 50 60VCE(V)
Temperature effect on transistors operation
1. Transistors, like diodes, are very sensitive to temperature variation.
2. The most temperature-sensitive quantities are the base-emitter voltage VBE and the leakage
current.
3. The base-emitter voltage VBE changes:–1.8mV/deg C for Si transistor,
–2.02mV/deg C for Ge transistor.
4. The leakage current is approximately doubles in quantity for every 10 deg C rise in the
transistor’s temperature.
5. Another temperature sensitive property of a transistor is the βDC. The following graph shows
the effect of temperature changes on the value of βDC for a bipolar transistor.
Temperature effect on transistors operation (cont’d)
 As the transistor temperature increases, more minority carriers are created
through the electron-hole pair generation. These minority carriers provide more
collector current IC through the transistor without increasing the base-emitter bias
voltage VBE.
 When the temperature increases, the collector current I C increases due to an

increase in: - the leakage current, and
- the dc current gain βDC.
Thermal runaway
Bipolar transistors suffer from an effect known as thermal runaway, whereby an
increase in the transistor temperature causes an increase in the dc current gain βDC
which in turn increases the collector current IC. The increased collector current further
increases the base-collector junction temperature due to heating from its dissipated
power PD = VCE IC. Subsequently, the dc current gain βDC and hence, the collector
current IC increases further. This process continues until the transistor either burns
itself out or operates in the saturation region I C(sat) .
T βDC  IC  PD 
Heat dissipation of BJT
 When power is dissipated in the base-collector junction, the heat generated should
be immediately conducted away from the junction to the transistor case and then to
the surrounding air to avoid burning or over heating.
Heat sink
 The amount of heat or power flow from the junction to the surrounding
air depends on the heat handling capacity or thermal resistance of the
transistor and also the temperature difference (or gradient) between
the junction and the surrounding air.
 If a transistor cannot dissipate enough heat (or has high thermal

resistance) fast enough to the surrounding air, a heat sink is normally
required to increase the surface area of the transistor in contact with
the atmosphere, so that sufficient heat can be dissipated as fast as
possible.
 In other words, a heat sink increases the heat handling capacity from
the case-to-air of a transistor.
Heat sink (cont’d)
BJT Summary
1. The bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a three terminal device; terminals are the
Emitter (E), the Collector (C) and the Base (B).
2. There are two types of BJTs: the npn and pnp.
3. The arrow in the circuit symbol of a BJT transistor is on the emitter (E) and points
to the n-type material.
4. The input characteristic is a plot of IB versus VBE curves while keeping VCE
constant.
5. The output characteristic curves of a bipolar transistor are plotted with the collector
current IC against the collector-emitter voltage VCE while keeping IB constant.
6. The gradient (or slope) of the transfer characteristic line gives the value of βDC for
the particular VCE value.
7. The transistor is a current controlled device where by the base current, IB (A),
controls the amount of emitter current, IE (mA), and collector current, IC (mA).
8. The d.c. common-emitter current gain (βDC) is:
IC
 DC 
IB
BJT Summary
9. The junction between the base and the emitter is called the base-emitter junction (B-E) and
the junction between the base and the collector is called the base-collector (B-C) junction.
10. Regions of operation for BJT:
 When both the B-E and B-C junctions are in forward biased, the transistor is said to be in
the saturation region.
 When the B-E is not fully forward biased and B-C junctions are in reverse biased, the
transistor is said to be in the cutoff region.
 When the B-E junction is in forward biased and the B-C junction is reverse biased, the
transistor is said to be in the active or linear region.
11. Properties of BJT operating in the active region (applied in amplifier circuits):
• βDC = IC / IB.
• IE = IC + IB
• VBE = 0.7 V.
12. Operating limits of BJT is limited by: I C(max) , VCE(max) , and
PD(max) = IC x VCE
13. Bipolar transistors suffer from an effect known as thermal runaway; heat sink is normally
required to provide heat dissipation.
Transistor Summary
 Although in modern electronics, amplifiers are more
conveniently implemented using integrated circuits (IC) like
operational amplifiers, understanding of transistor amplifiers is
useful as
 they are used in high frequency applications e.g. in radio
communications circuits, where discrete transistor amplifiers are
still popularly in use.
 The analysis of BJT as amplifier is studied. They are divided

into
 ac small-signal analysis by modeling the ac amplifier as a two-port
network
 ac large-signal analysis which uses ac load line to determine the
maximum unclipped
Biasing of BJT
1. BJT biasing circuits

2. Fixed bias circuit
3. Emitter bias circuit
4. Voltage divider bias circuit
5. Feedback bias circuit
BJT Amplifier
• How transistors can be used to amplify a
signal
73
Transistor Circuit Configurations
 There are three amplifier
configurations utilized in transistor Common-Emitter (CE) circuit:
circuits: V
CC
 CE—Common-Emitter
 CC—Common-Collector
R
C
 CB—Common-Base
+
 The most widely used
configuration is the CE + v
o
configuration. R
v B
i
R
- V E -
BB
DC Biasing Circuits
• The ac operation of an +VCC
amplifier depends on the
initial dc values of IB, IC,
and VCE.
RC
• By varying IB around an RB
initial dc value, IC and VCE v out
are made to vary around

their initial dc values.
• DC biasing is a static v in vce
operation since it deals ib
with setting a fixed
(steady) level of current ic
(through the device) with a
desired fixed voltage drop
across the device.
Purpose of the DC biasing circuit
• To turn the device “ON”
• To place it in operation in the region of its characteristic

where the device operates most linearly, i.e. to set up the
initial dc values of IB, IC, and VCE
DC bias provides for proper operation of an amplifier. If
DC bias an amplifier is not biased correctly, it can go into
saturation or cutoff when an input signal is applied.
Linear operation:
vin (v) vout (v)
Output signal is an amplified
replica of the input signal
t(s) t(s) with 180o out of phase.
A
Output voltage limited by cutoff: vout (v)

vin (v) The positive portion of
output signal has been
t(s) A t(s) clipped due to transistor’s
cutoff.
Output voltage limited by saturation:

vin (v) vout (v) The negative portion of
clipped due to transistor’s
t(s) A t(s) saturation.
DC analysis of CE circuit
The purpose of the dc biasing circuit is to set up  There are two circuit loops in
the initial dc values of IB, IC, and VCE CE amplifier DC circuit
--- input circuit
--- output circuit
IC  Input loop consists of VBB, RB,
VBE and RE
RC VRC
 KVL for Biasing Equation
VBB = VRB + VBE + VRE
RB
VBB= RBIB + VBE + REIE
IB VCC
VCE
+  Output loop consists of VCC, RC,
VRB VBE IE VCE and RE
VBB RE VRE  KVL for DC load line Equation
VCC = VRC + VCE + VRE
VCC = RCIC + VCE + REIE
DC bias circuit of CE amplifier

DC biasing circuit
 There are three important observations to be made from the dc bias
circuit:
a) When conducting, the base-emitter junction acts as a forward
biased diode with forward current IB.
Therefore, VBE = 0.7 V
b) By applying KCL at the emitter terminal (E),
IE = I B + I C
c) The collector current is represented by a dependent current
source. Because the amount of collector current, IC depends on
the base current, IB. This relationship is: IC = βDC IB
It is the current gain feature that enables BJTs to be used for

amplifying signals.
 Applying KVL around the input circuit, we obtain the Biasing

Equation:
VBB = RBIB + VBE + REIE
DC biasing circuit (cont’d)
 Since the transistor is operating in the active region, the emitter current can be
expressed by:
IE = IC + IB= βDC IB + IB = (βDC + 1) IB  βDC IB
For βDC is larger than ( )50, we usually assume that:
IE = IC = βDC IB
Substitute IE into the biasing equation, we have:
VBB = RB IB + VBE + RE (βDC IB)
VBB –VBE = (RB + βDC RE) IB
Or IB = (VBB –VBE) / (RB + βDC RE) This is the biasing base current.
 IC = βDC IB --- Transistor operates in the active region
 Applying KVL around the output circuit we obtain the dc load line equation:
VCC = RC IC + VCE + RE IE For βDC  50, assume IE = IC,
VCE = VCC – (RC + RE) IC This is the transistor collector-emitter voltage.
 The operating point (Q point) of the transistor is at (V CE, IC).

Q-point
 IC and VCE represents the operating-point of the transistor on the
output characteristic. It is also known as the Quiescent Point (Q-
point) or the bias-point of the transistor, Q-point (VCEQ, ICQ ).
 The following are the same:
• Biasing point
• Quiescent point
• Operating point (OP) Q-Point
• DC point
 Occasionally, a subscript Q is added to the

current or the voltage variables so to indicate
the Q-point values.
 The Q-point (quiescent-point) specifies the dc output current IC and

the dc output voltage VCE when no ac signal is superimposed at the
input of the amplifier.
 Determined by using transistor output characteristic and DC load
Example Solution
Step 1: Determine the base current I B.
The silicon transistor shown below (βDC Apply KVL around the input circuit:
= 200) is used in an amplifier circuit
VBB = RBIB + VBE + βDC IB RE
having a base bias resistor RB = 10kΩ, a
base voltage source VBB = 10V, a 10V= 10kΩ IB +0.7V + 200 x 680 IB
collector resistor RC = 100Ω, an emitter IB = (10V – 0.7V) / (10kΩ + 200
resistor RE = 680Ω and a d.c. power x 680)= 63.7A
supply VCC = 20V. Determine the
operating point (VCEQ, ICQ )of the Step 2: Determine IC.
transistor.
IC= βDC IB= 200 x 63.7  A= 12.74 mA
IC
Step 3: Determine VCE.
RC Applying KVL around the output circuit
VRC
RB + 20V = 100ΩIC + VCE + 680ΩIE
IB
VCE VCC Since βDC is large, IE = IC
+ VCE= 20V – 100xIC – 680IE
VRB IE
VBE VCE= 20V –100x12.74mA – 680 x
VBB 12.74mA = 10.06V
RE VRE
The operating point of the transistor is at (VCEQ =
10.06V, ICQ = 12.74mA).
Potentials at base, emitter and collector
IC
RC VRC
IB RB VB VC
VCE VCC
VRB VBE VE
VBB VRE
RE
IE
 Potential at base:
VB = VBB – VRB = VBB – IBRB
Or VB = VRE + VBE = IERE + VBE
 Potential at emitter:
VE = IERE
Or VE = VCC – VRC– VCE= VCC–ICRC–VCE
Or VE = VBB – VRB– VBE= VBB–IBRB–VBE
 Potential at collector:
VC = VCC – VRC = VCC – ICRC
Or VC = VRE + VCE = IERE + VCE
Exercise 1 Solution
Step 1: Determine IB.
Find IB, IC, VCE and determine the Apply KVL around the input circuit:
operating region of this transistor VBB = RBIB + VBE + βDC IB RE
and indicate Q-point. 5V = 52kΩIB+0.7V+100 x 2.2KΩ IB
DC=100 IB=(5V–0.7V)/(52kΩ+100 x 2.2KΩ)
= 15.8A
IC
Step 2: Determine the collector current I C.
IC= βDC IB= 100 x 15.8A= 1.58 mA
RC VRC
4.7K Step 3: Determine VCE.
RB +
Ω
IB
52K VCE VCC Applying KVL around the output circuit
Ω + 20V
IE 20V = 4.7KΩIC + VCE + 2.2KΩIE
VRB VBE
VBB Since βDC is large, IE = IC
5V RE VRE VCE=20V – 4.7KΩIC – 2.2KΩIC
2.2KΩ VCE=20V–4.7KΩ x 1.58mA–2.2KΩ
x1.58mA = 9.098V
The Q-point of the transistor

Because VBE=0.7V>0 --BE forward biased
is at:
∴VBC=VBE–VCE=0.7–9.098=–8.398V<0
(VCEQ = 9.098V, ICQ = 1.58mA).
---BC reverse biased
∴this transistor is in active region
Exercise 2 Solution:
Find VB, VC, VE of the following Step 1: find IB

transistor circuit. IB = (VBB – VBE) / (RB + βDC RE)
= (4–0.7)/(47KΩ+1001.8KΩ)
=14.54A
IC
Step 2: find VB
VB = VBB – IBRB=4–14.5 A 47KΩ=3.32V
RC
2.2K
RB Ω Step 3: find IC
IB C
47K B VCC IC=DCIB=100 14.5 A=1.45mA
DC=100 15V
Ω
E
VBB Step 4: find VC
4V RE
VC=VCC-ICRC=15-1.45mA 2.2KΩ=11.81V
1.8KΩ
Step 5: find VE
Because DC>50, IE=IC
∴VE=IERE=ICRE=1.45mA 1.8KΩ=2.61V
Biasing of BJT
1. BJT biasing circuit
+ +
+ +
VCB + RC ICRC
VCB VCB IC RC RB
IC IB - IBRB -
- + +
IB- VCC IB VCE _ VCE -
+ +
- RB - VCC
VBE + + VCE
IE + VCC + IB -
IE - VBE
VBE VBB VBE IE
-
- -
VCE= VCB +VBE = VCC Development of Biasing circuit for BJT by one battery
Forward bias VBE= VCC -IB RB
Reverse bias VCB= VCC -IC RC - VBE

86
2. BJT Fixed bias circuit
2.1. npn-BJT Fixed bias circuit
• This is common emitter (CE)
configuration
• DISADVANTAGE
 Unstable – because it is too
dependent on β and produce width
change of Q-point
 For improved bias stability , add
emitter resistor to dc bias.
+
+ RC I CR C
• Solve the circuit using HVK IBRB RB -
-
• 1st step: Locate capacitors and +
VCC
replace them with an open circuit VCE
+ IB -
• 2nd step: Locate 2 main loops which; VBE IE
 BE loop -
 CE loop Fixed Bias Method
87
Fixed bias npn-BJT has IB obtained by RB connected to VCC
2.2 pnp-BJT Fixed bias circuit
-
- RC ICRC
IBRB RB +
+ CB
- VCC
IB VCE
-
+
VBE IE
+
Fixed Bias Method
Compared to npn-BJT only the power supply V CC is reversed for pnp-BJT
88
2.3 BJT Fixed bias circuit analysis
Example:
Following BJT circuit has VCC=9V, =50 , RB=100kW, RC=1kW . If forward
bias VBE=0.7V, find Base current IB, Collector current IC, Emitter current
IE,VCE, and reverse bias voltage VCB.
100k RC 1k
RB
IC 9V
+
VCC
VCE
+ IB -
VBE IE
-
9  0.7
9  IB  100k  0.7  IB   0.083mA  83A
100k
IC  IB  50  0.083mA  4.15mA
IE  IC  IB  4.15  0.083  4.233mA
VCE  9  IC  1k   9  4.15  4.85V
VCE  VCB  0.7  VCB  4.85  0.7  4.15V
89
3. BJT Emitter bias circuit
3.1 npn-BJT Emitter bias circuit
+
+ RC ICRC
IBRB RB -
- +
IB VCE VCC
-
+
RE IERE
-
Resistor, RE added Emitter Bias Method
An emitter resistor, RE is added to improve stability
Emitter bias npn-BJT has IB obtained by RB connected to VCC and RE

connected to Emitter for better stabilization of I C
90
3.2 pnp-BJT Emitter bias circuit
-
- RC ICRC
IBRB RB +
+
-
VCC
IB VCE
+
-
RE IERE
+
pnp Emitter Bias Method
Compared to npn-BJT only the power supply V CC is reversed for pnp-BJT
91
3.3 BJT Emitter bias circuit analysis
Example:
Following BJT circuit has VCC=9V, =50 , RB=100kW, RC=1kW . RE=0.2kW If
VBE=0.7V, find Base current IB, Collector current IC, Emitter current
IE,VCE, and reverse bias voltage VCB.
RB=100kW RC=1kW
+
IB VCE
- VCC=9V
RE=0.2kW
9  IB  100k  0.7  50  1IB   0.2k  taking 1   

9  0.7
IB   0.0754mA  75.4 A
110k
IC   IB  50  0.0754mA  3.77mA
IE  IC  IB  3.77  0.0754  3.84mA
VCE  9  IC   1k  0.2k   4.476V
VCE  VCB  0.7  VCB  4.476  0.7  3.776V 92
4. BJT Voltage divider bias circuit
4.1 npn-BJT Voltage divider bias circuit
+
RC ICRC
R1 -
IB +
VB VCE VCC
-
R2 +
RE IERE
-
• For DC analysis, replace capacitor with an open-circuit

• Provides good Q-point stability with a single polarity supply voltage
• Voltage divider bias npn-BJT has I B obtained by voltage divider

93
R1 and R2 connected to VCC and RE connected to Emitter for very
much better stabilization of I
npn-BJT Voltage divider bias circuit with CE
94
4.2 Voltage divider bias circuit analysis
(by Thevenin’s theorem)
VCC
R1
IC IC
RB V B
VB  
IB IB
R2 VBB
RE RE
R1R2 R2
Rth  RB  R1 // R2  and Vth  VBB  Vcc
R1  R2 R1  R2
I V  0.7
VBB  IBRB  0.7  IC RE  C RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  BB
  RB   R
  E
 
95
4.3 BJT Voltage divider bias circuit analysis
Example:
Following BJT circuit has VCC=9V, =50 , R1=100kW , R2=22kW, RC=1kW .
RE=0.2kW If VBE=0.7V, find Base current IB, Collector current IC, Emitter
current IE,VCE, and reverse bias voltage VCB.
R1=100kW RC=1kW
IC
+
IB VCE
- VCC=9V
RR 100k  22k
Rth  RB  1 2   18k and IE
R1  R2 122k
RE=0.2kW
R2 9  22k R2=22kW
Vth  VBB  Vcc   1.623V
R1  R2 100k  22k
I  I 
VBB  IBRB  0.7  IC  IB RE  C RB  0.7   IC  C RE
   
IC 
VBB  0.7
R

1.623  0.7
0.2k  18k

 1.648mA  taking 1   1 
(1  1  )RE  B  50
I 1.648
IB  C   32.96A  IE  1.648  0.03296mA  1.68mA
 50
VCE  9  IC   1k  0.2k   9  1.648mA  1.2k   7.022V
VCE  VCB  0.7  VCB  7.022  0.7  6.322V 96
4.4 BJT Voltage divider bias circuit
(approximate analysis)
If R2 is small compared to RE and if 10%

VCC
tolerance is allowed, or if RE ≥ 10R2
R1 Current IR2 ≥ 10IB or IB=is negligible compared
IC to IR2 (approximate)
IB+IR2 IB
VB  Then we can take VR2  VB  VCC
R2
R1  R2
+
R2  VBE  IE RE
IR2 RE IERE
-  VBE  IC RE Approximat e again that IE  IC if   1
97
Example:
Using approximate method, analyze the following BJT circuit having V CC=9V,
=200 , R1=47kW , R2=10kW, RC=1kW . RE=1kW If VBE=0.7V, find Base
current IB, Collector current IC, Emitter current IE,VCE, and reverse bias
voltage VCB.
R1=47kW RC=1kW
IC
+
IB VCE
- VCC=9V
IE
RE=1kW
R2=10kW
Check 10R2   RE  100k  200  1k  200k OK for approximat e method

R2 10k
VCC  VBE  IC RE  9  0.7  IC  1k
R1  R2 57k
0.879 0.879
IC   0.879mA  IB   4.39A  IE  0.879  0.004  0.883mA
1k 200
Aproximati ng   1, IC  IE
VCE  9  IC  2k  7.242V  VCB  VCE  VBE  7.242  0.7  6.542V
98
99
5. BJT Feedback bias circuit
+
RC ICRC
RB -
I +I
C B
IC
IB +
VCC
VB VCE
-
+
RE IERE
-
Feedback bias has IB obtained by RB from collector voltage for better control on
IC and RE connected to Emitter for very much better stabilization of I C
100
Example:
Following BJT Feedback bias circuit has V CC=9V, =50 , RB=500kW , RC=1kW
. RE=0.2kW If VBE=0.7V, find Base current IB, Collector current IC,
Emitter current IE,VCE, and reverse bias voltage VCB.
+ VCC  IBRB  0.7  IC  IB RE  RC 

RC=1kW (I +I )R I
9  C 500k  0.7  IC 1  0.020.2k  1k 
B C C
RB=500kW - 50
IC+IB
IC 9  0.7
IC   0.739mA
IB + 1.224k  500k
50
VB VCE
VCC=9V I 739A
- IB  C   14.78A  IE  739  14.78  753.78A
+  50
RE=0.2kW IERE VCE  9  IC  IB   1k  0.2k   9  753.78  1.2k   8.095V
- VCE  VCB  0.7  VCB  8.096  0.7  7.395V
101
Analysis of BJT Biasing
102
• β dependent biasing — bad biasing
103
• A slightly better biasing method
104
• A much better biasing method — emitter
degeneration
105
• Stable (good) biasing
106
• Alternative view of biasing
107
• What controls the operating point?
108
• What happens if VBE dances up and
down?
109
• Derivation of voltage gain
110
• CE amplifier
– The one we have just studied is called COMMON-
EMITTER amplifier
111
• How do we inject signal into the amplifier?
112
• Note on symbols
113
• Solution: Add the same biasing DC level
114
• The wonderful voltage source: capacitor
115
• Solution — insert coupling capacitor
116
117
• Can we simplify the analysis?
– We are mainly interested in the ac signals.
– The DC bias does not matter!
118
• Small-signal model
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Modeling of BJT
& Small Signal Analysis
• DC circuit modeling
• AC circuit modeling
• AC parameters of BJT amplifiers
• BJT re model
• BJT Hybrid Model
• Graphical Hybrid Parameters
• Parameters relationship of two models
• Small signal analysis
134
LARGE-SIGNAL DC CIRCUIT MODELS
When iC becomes
zero, we say that
the transistor is
cutoff.
When vCE  0.2 V, 
we say that the

transistor is in
saturation.
(Active-Region Model)
(Saturation-Region Model)
(Cutoff-Region Model)
Example: Analysis of the Fixed Base
Bias Circuit
RB  200k
RC  1k
VCC  15V
  100
Analysis of the Four-Resistor Bias Circuit
1
RB   R1 R2
1 R1  1 R2
R2
VB  VCC
R1  R2
VB  VBE
IB 
RB    1RE
I C  βI B
VCE  VCC  RC I C  RE I E
AC Parameters of BJT Amplifiers
VCC=9V
R1=100kW R1=100kW RC=1kW

RC=1kW
IC IC
+
+
IB VCE
IB VCE -
- VCC=9V BE
IE
IE R2=22kW
RE=0.2kW
RE=0.2kW
R2=22kW
2.Schematic is simplified
1.BJT is biased (Chap. 5)
VCC=9V
R1 RC
DIC Vo(pp)
3. BJT is used as an amplifier 0 t 0 t
to have Vo(pp)>Vin(pp) IL
Iin DIB
Vin(pp)
RL
RE
R2
154
VCC=9V
R1 RC
DIC Vo(pp)
0 t 0 t
4. Input ac voltage Vin(pp) will produce Iin Iin DIB IL
Vin(pp)
RL
5. Iin will produce Ib RE

R2
6. Ib will produce Ic (Ic =  Ib ) Rin Ro
7. Ic will produce ac voltage across Rc (Vc =IcRc )
8. Vc will produce output voltage Vo(pp) at the collector (Vo(pp) =Vcc-IcRc )
9. Voltage gain of the amplifier Av = Vo(pp)/Vin(pp)
10. Current gain of the amplifier A I = IL/Iin
11. Input resistance of the amplifier R in = Vin/Iin
12. Output resistance of the amplifier Ro = Vo/Io (Io= Ic)
Voltage gain Av , Current gain AI , Input resistance Rin , Output resistance

Ro are called the ac parameters (or the performance ) of the amplifier.
155
BJT re model
BJT dc Bias current Ib will produce Ic and BE junction behave as a diode
dynamic Base resistance =re= 26mV/IC

(IC=IB) (Chapter 4)
re is the junction resistance at the
Base creating a voltage drop
Vbe=(Ib+Ib)re Ibre
Then input resistance of the BJT
becomes Vbe/ Ib = re
156
• Input resistance of the BJT Ri = re
BJT re model
• Output resistance of the BJT Rout =  // ro = ro

(resistance of the current generator Ib is infinity)
157
BJT Hybrid Model
158
BJT Hybrid model 159
Graphical Hybrid Parameters
160
161
162
163
8.5 Parameters relationship of two models
BJT re model
Hybrid re
model model
hie = re
hre  0
hfe = 
hoe = ro
BJT Hybrid model

164
BJT Model as Amplifier
BJT as a voltage-controlled current BJT as a current-controlled
source ( a transconductance current source (a current
amplifier) amplifier).
165
T-MODEL
Emitter resistance re rather than the base resistance r
featured in the hybrid-T model.
Current-controlled
Voltage-controlled current source current source
representation.
166
Transistor Amplifier
Example
• NPN
• Quiescent point
VC  VCC  2.3 x3  3.1V
VBB  VBE 3  0.7 VCC
IB    0.023mA
RBB 100 10V
3  0.7
I C  I B   2.3mA 3.0kohm R2
100
R1 Q1
V1 1DEAL_BJT_NPN
100kohm
3V
167
Small Signal Analysis
VT 25mV
re    10.8
I E (2.3 / 0.99)mA
IC 2.3mA
gm    92mA / V
VT 25mV
 100
r    1.09k
gm 92
168
Small Signal
169
BJT Small Signal Analysis
• Drawing Equivalent circuit

• Analysis of Fixed bias amplifier
• Analysis of Emitter bias amplifier
• Analysis of Voltage divider bias amplifier
• Analysis of Feedback bias amplifier
• Analysis of Emitter Follower amplifier
• Analysis of Common Base amplifier
170
Small Signal Analysis
Linear operation of the
transistor: small-signal
• vbe triangular waveform
is superimposed on dc
voltage VBE.
• Collector signal current
ic, also of triangular
waveform, superimposed
on the dc current IC.
• Ic = gm vbe, where gm is
the slope of the ic - vBE
curve at the bias point Q.
171
1. Drawing Equivalent circuit
1.Given BJT circuit
100k RC 1k
RB +
V IC 9V
-
CB
+
VCC
2.BJT amplifier
VCE
+ IB -
VBE IE VCC Vin and Vo are connected to the amplifier
-
RB
RC and battery is replaced by VCC
IC
IB vo
vin 3.BJT ac equivalent
C
vo
Ib B
vin
RC
RB
ac equivalent of coupling capacitor is short
ac equivalent of VCC is grounded E
4.Amplifier equivalent circuit

C
vo
B
vin Ib
re model of BJT is substituted RB
bre bIb RC
172
Now AV , Rin , Ro , AI can be found from the amplifier equivalent circuit
Example:
Draw the equivalent circuit of the given amplifier
1.Given BJT circuit

+
+ RC ICRC
IBRB RB -
- +
IB VCE VCC 2.BJT amplifier
-
+
RE IERE VCC
- RC
RB
IC
IB vo
vin
3.BJT ac equivalent
vo
RE Ib
vin
RC
RB
RE
4.Amplifier equivalent circuit

vo
vin Ib
bre bIb RC
RB
RE
173
Now AV , Rin , Ro , AI can be found from the amplifier equivalent circuit
Example:
VCC
RC
RB
IC
IB vo
vin
RE1
RE2 CE
vo
Ib
vin
RE1 RC
RB
vo
vin Ib
bre bIb RC
RB
RE1
174
Example:
+ VCC
RC ICRC
R1 - RC
R1
IB + IC
VB VCE VCC IB vo
-
vin
R2 +
RE IERE R2
- RE
vo
vo
Ib vin Ib
bre RC
vin RB
bIb
RC
RB RE
RE
R1//R2 = RB
175
Example:
+
RC I C RC
RB -
I +I
C B
IC
IB +
VCC
VB VCE
-
+
VCC
RE IERE
- RC
RB
IB vo
vin
RE
RB
vo
vin Ib
bre bIb RC
RE
176
2. Analysis of Fixed Bias Amplifier
Small-signal analysis of the amplifier is to find out voltage gain A V , Input resistance
Rin , Output resistance Ro , Current gain AI from the amplifier equivalent circuit
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Fixed Bias Circuit amplifier
VCC
RC vo
RB
IC
C
vo
Iin
vo Ib B Io
IB vin vin Ib
vin RB
RC bre bIb RC
RB
E
Note that IB in dc circuit is

Rin Ro
changed to ac Ib in ac equivalent
circuit. IB is the dc current due to Rin  RB //  re Ro  RC //   RC
BJT biasing and Ib is the ac  Ib RC R
V
current when Vin is present. AV  o   C
Vin Ib   re re
Io V /R R  R  R //  re R // re
AI   o C  AV in    C  B  B
Iin Vin / Rin RC  re  RC re
177
Example:
including BJT output resistance ro
vo
Iin bIb ro Io
VCC vin Ib
RC
bre RC
RB
IC vo RB
vo Ib
IB vin
vin RC
RB
Rin Ro
Rin  RB //  re Ro  RC // ro
V  Ib RC // ro  RC // ro
AV  o  
Vin Ib   re re
I V /R R  R // ro  RB // re  R // ro  RB //  re
AI  o  o C  AV in    C    C 

Iin Vin / Rin RC  re  RC  RC  re
178
Example:
including BJT output resistance ro=50k
12V
Io
12  0.7
3kW 12  IB  470k  0.7  IB   0.024mA
470kW 470k
IC
vo IC   IB  100  0.024mA  2.4mA
IB
vin 26mV
Iin ro=50kW re   10.8  re  100  10.8  1080  1.08k
b=100 2.4mA
Rin Ro
vo Rin  RB // re  470k // 1.08k  1.078k

Iin 100Ib
Io Ro  RC // ro  3k // 50k  2.83k
vin Ib
bre 3kW  100Ib   3k // 50k  283k
AV     262
470kW Ib  1.08k 1.08k
1.08kW 50kW
I V /R R 1.08k
AI  o  o C  AV in  262   94.33
Rin Ro Iin Vin / Rin RC 3k
179
3. Analysis of Emitter Bias Amplifier
Connecting RE at the Emitter of the BJT will have different dc conditions
and also different ac parameters compared to Fixed bias amplifier. R E is
very important to stabilize dc currents in BJT and will also stabilize ac
parameter AV (voltage gain of the amplifier).
Three different Emitter Bias Amplifiers

VCC
VCC VCC
RC
RC RC RB
RB RB IC
IC IC vo
vo vo IB
IB IB
vin
vin vin
RE1
RE RE CE
RE2 CE
Single RE used for both Single RE used for only Both RE1 and RE2 are used for
dc and ac calculations. dc calculations as CE is dc calculations and only RE1
short in ac equivalent for ac calculation as CE is
circuit.
short in ac equivalent circuit.
180
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Emitter Bias amplifier. Neglect
the BJT output resistance ro
20V
20  IB  470k  0.7  IB  0.22k  0.33k 
470k 2.2kW
W IC 12  0.7
IB   0.035mA
IB vo 470k  140  0.55k 
vin b=140 IC  IB  140  0.035mA  4.94mA
ro=40kW
0.22kW 26mV
re   5.26  re  140  5.26  1080  0.737k
4.94mA
0.33kW CE
Vin
Vin  Ib  0.737k  140Ib  0.22k  Ib 
51.537k
Iin vo Rin  470k // Vin / Ib   470k // 51.537k  48.3k
Io
vin Ib Ro  RC // ro  RC  2.2k  (ro neglected)
bre 140Ib 2.2kW
V  140Ib   2.2k 283k
AV  o 
470kW 0.737kW
   5.98
0.22kW Vin Ib  51.537k 1.08k
I V /R R 48.3k
AI  o  o C  AV in  5.98   131.29
Iin Vin / Rin RC 2.2k
181
4. Analysis of Voltage divider Bias Amplifier
Connecting R1 and R2 at the Base of the BJT will have more stabilized
dc conditions than a single RB. The input resistance Rin becomes lower
but voltage gain of the amplifier is not affected.
Four different Voltage divider Bias Amplifiers

VCC
RC
VCC VCC
R1
VCC IC
IB vo
RC RC RC
R1 R1 R1
IC IC IC vin
vo IB vo IB vo
IB
RE1
vin vin vin R2
R2 R2 R2
RE CE RE RE2 CE
No RE used for both Single RE used for Single RE used for Both RE1 and RE2 are used
dc and ac only dc calculations both dc and ac for dc calculations and
calculations. as CE is short in ac calculations only RE1 for ac calculation
equivalent circuit. as CE is short in ac182
equivalent circuit.
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Voltage divider Bias amplifier.
Neglect the BJT output resistance r o Io 22V
6.8kW
56kW
Iin vo
b=90
vin ro=40kW
8.2kW
1.5kW
Rin Ro
Iin Ib vo
Io
vin I  I 
6.8kW VBB  IBRB  0.7  IC  IB RE  C RB  0.7   IC  C RE
56kW 8.2kW    
1.5kW
IC 
VBB  0.7
R

2.8  0.7
7. 15k

 1.33mA  taking 1   1 
56k  8.2k (1  1 )RE  B  1.5k  90
Rth  RB   7.15k and
64.2k 26mV 26mV
22  8.2k re    19.55   re  90  19.55  1.759k
Vth  VBB   2.8V IC 1.33mA
56k  8.2k
Vin
Vin  Ib  1.759k  90Ib  1.5k  Ib 
136.76k
vo
Iin Ib Io Rin  7.15k // Vin / Ib   7.15k // 136.76k  6.79k
vin
90Ib 6.8kW Ro  RC // ro  RC  6.8k  (ro neglected)
bre
7.15kW
1.759kW V  90Ib   6.8k
1.5kW AV  o    4.475
Vin Ib  136.76k
I V /R R 6.79k
R1//R2 = RB AI  o  o C  AV in  4.475  183
4.47
Iin Vin / Rin RC 6.8k
Miller’s Theorem
Miller’s Theorem can be used whenever an impedance is connected
between two nodes having different input and output voltages.
I1 I2 I1 I2
Z
V1 V2 V1 ZM1 ZM2 V2
Rin Ro Rin=ZM1 Ro=ZM2
V V Z Z
V  V2
I1  1
V  V1
and I2  2 ZM2  2  2 
Z Z I2 V2  V1 1  V1
V2
V V Z Z
ZM1  1  1   Ro 
I1 V1  V2 1 1 AV
Z Z
   Rin  V
V2
1 V 1  AV Where AV  2
1 V1
184
5. Analysis of Feedback Bias Amplifier
Feedback from Collector to Base by RB creates a low input resistance Rin but a
very good dc and ac stabilization is an important part of this amplifier.
+
RC ICR C Io VCC
RB -
I +I
RB
C B RC vo
IC RB
IB + vo
VCE
VCC
Iin vin Iin Ib Io
VB IB
- bre bIb RC
+ vin
RE IERE Ro
- Rin RE Rin RE
Ro
We can apply Miller’s theorem to RB to find Rin and also Ro amplifier.

V  Ib  RC  RC RC
vo AV  o   
bIb Vin Ib   re   Ib  RE  re  RE  re  RE 
vin Iin Ib Io
bre RC RB RB RB RB
RM1   RM2  
RC R 1 R
RM1 RM2 1 1 C 1 1 C
RE re  RE RE AV RE
Rin
Ro
185
Io VCC
RC vo
RB bIb
vo Io
Iin IB vin Iin Ib
bre RC
vin
RM1 RM2
RE Ro Rin RE
Rin Ro
Ib  re   Ib  RE  RB RB

Rin  RM1 //  // re   RE   // RE 
Ib RC RC
1 1
RE RE
RB RB
Ro  RC // RM2  RC //  RC //
1 R
1 1 C
AV RE
V  Ib  RC  RC RC
AV  o   
Vin Ib   re   Ib  RE  re  RE  re  RE 
RB
// RE 
RC
1
Io Vo / RC Rin  RC  RE
AI    AV   
Iin Vin / Rin RC  re  RE  RC
186
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Feedback Bias amplifier. Take
IB<<IC and neglect the BJT output resistance r o
9V
Io
2.7kW
180kW
vo
Iin IB
IC b=200
9 180k  0.7  IC 2.7k  (IB  IC ) vin
200 ro=¥
9  0.7 26mV Rin
IC   2.3mA  re   11.3 Ro
3.6k 2.3mA
V  Ib  RC R 2.7k RB
AV  o   C    238.9
Vin Ib  re  re  11.3 vo
RB 180k vin Iin Ib Io
Rin  RM1 // re   // 200  11.3  0.563k bre
1  Av 1   238.9  bIb RC
RB 180k
Ro  RM2 // RC  // 2.7k  // 2.7k  2.66k Rin
1 1 1  1 Ro
Av  238.9 
I R 0.56k
AI  o  AV in  238.9  49.55
Iin RC 2.7k vo
bIb
vin Iin Ib Io
bre RC
RM1 RM2
Rin
Ro
187
6. Analysis of Emitter Follower Amplifier
Taking the output voltage at the Emitter instead of Collector of the BJT
will create different ac parameters compared to Fixed bias and Emitter bias
amplifier especially in voltage gain which will now unity. The output
resistance will become very small. Input resistance is the same as Emitter
bias amplifier.
VCC
Iin IB
bIB
RB
Iin IB vin bre

vo
vin RB Io
Io vo
Rin RE
Rin RE Ro
Ro
Vin  Ib   re   Ib  RE  To find Ro  short Vin and find Ro  Vo / Io // RE
V Vo I   re
Rin  RB // in  RB // re  RE   b  re  Ro  Vo / Io // RE  re // RE
Ib Io Ib  Ib
V Ib  RE RE Rin R // re  RE 
AV  o    1  re  RE  AI  AV  1 B
Vin Ib   re   Ib  RE  re  RE RE RE
188
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Emitter Follower amplifier. Take
16V
270kW
b=110
Iin IB ro=50k
dc analysis
vin
IC vo
16  270k  0.7  IC 2.7k  (IB  IC ) Io
110
Rin 2.7kW
16  0.7 26mV Ro
IC   2.97mA  re   8.75
5.15k 2.97mA
ac analysis
V
Iin Vin  Ib   re    Ib  RE   in  re  RE 
IB
bIB
Ib
vin bre
vo V
RB Io Rin  RB // in  270k // 1108.75  2700  270k // 298k  141.65k
Ib
Rin RE
Ro V Ib  RE RE 2700
AV  o    1
Vin Ib   re   Ib  RE  re  RE 8.75  2700
To find Ro  short Vin and find Ro  Vo / Io // RE

Vo I   re
 b  re  Ro  Vo / Io // RE  re // RE  8.75 // 2700  8.75
Io Ib   Ib
R R // re  RE  141.65k
AI  AV in  1  B  1  52.46
RE RE 2.7k
189
7. Analysis of Common Base Amplifier
Connecting the input voltage at the Emitter and taking the output voltage at
the Collector of the BJT is called Common Base amplifier. It will create the
input resistance to become very small The Output resistance is the same as
Emitter bias amplifier.
PNP NPN
vin vo vin vo
Iin Iin
RE RC RE RC
VEE VCC VEE VCC
Vin is at the Emitter and Vo is at the Collector

and Base becomes common for both V in and Vo in Common Base amplifier
VCC
Io
RB RC
Vin is at the Emitter and Vo is at the Collector vo
in NPN BJT biased by a single battery Common Base amplifier IB
Iin Ro
vin
CB
RE
Rin190
VCC
Io
RB RC
vo vo Ib vo
IB Ib
Io bIb Io
Ro Iin bre
Iin Iin
vin vin RC vin RC
CB Ro Ro
RE RE RE
Rin Rin Rin
Common Base amplifier ac equivalent circuit BJT ac equivalent circuit
Ib vo
Ro  RC bIb
bre Io
V  Ib   re RC
Rin  RE // in  RE //  RE // re -bIb Iin vin
 I  I
b b
Ro
RE
Vin  Ib  re  Rin
V   Ib  RC RC
AV  o  
Vin  Ib  re  re
I R R R // re RE // re
AI  o  AV in  C  E 
Iin RC re RC re
191
Example:
Find the AV , Rin , Ro , AI of the given Common Base amplifier. Take
14V
Io
2.2kW
470kW vo
IB
b=140 Ro
IC Iin
14  470k  0.7  IC 1.2k  (IB  IC ) vin
140 10mF
14  0.7 26mV 1.2kW
IC   2.92mA  re   8.9 Rin
4.56k 2.92mA
Ro  RC  2.2k
V  Ib  re
Rin  RE // in  RE //  RE // re  1.2k // 8.9  8.9
 I b  I b
Vin  Ib  re 

V   Ib  RC RC 2.2k
AV  o     247.2
Vin  Ib   re  re 8.9
I R R R // re RE // re re
AI  o  AV in  C  E    1  RE  re 
Iin RC re RC re re
192
DC and AC Load Line Analysis
193
Transistor Amplifiers
useful as

into
network
maximum unclipped
DC bias provides for proper operation of an amplifier. If
DC bias an amplifier is not biased correctly, it can go into
saturation or cutoff when an input signal is applied.
Linear operation:
vin (v) vout (v)
Output signal is an amplified
replica of the input signal
t(s) t(s) with 180o out of phase.
A
Output voltage limited by cutoff: vout (v)

vin (v) The positive portion of
t(s) A t(s) clipped due to transistor’s
cutoff.
Output voltage limited by saturation:

vin (v) vout (v) The negative portion of
clipped due to transistor’s
t(s) A t(s) saturation.
DC analysis of CE circuit
The purpose of the dc biasing circuit is to set up  There are two circuit loops
the initial dc values of IB, IC, and VCE in CE amplifier DC circuit
--- input circuit
--- output circuit
IC  Input loop consists of VBB,
RB, VBE and RE
RC VRC
 KVL for Biasing Equation
VBB = VRB + VBE + VRE
RB
VBB= RBIB + VBE + REIE
IB VCC
VCE
+  Output loop consists of VCC,
VRB VBE IE RC, VCE and RE
VBB RE VRE  KVL for DC load line
Equation
VCC = VRC + VCE + VRE
DC bias circuit of CE amplifier
DC biasing circuit
 There are three important observations to be made from
the dc bias circuit:
a) When conducting, the base-emitter junction acts as a
forward biased diode with forward current IB.
Therefore, VBE = 0.7 V
b) By applying KCL at the emitter terminal (E),
IE = IB + IC
c) The collector current is represented by a dependent
current source. Because the amount of collector
current, IC depends on the base current, IB. This
relationship is: IC = βDC IB
It is the current gain feature that enables BJTs to be

used for amplifying signals.
 Applying KVL around the input circuit, we obtain the

Biasing Equation:
VBB = RBIB + VBE + REIE
DC biasing circuit (cont’d)
 Since the transistor is operating in the active region, the emitter current
can be expressed by:
IE = IC + IB= βDC IB + IB = (βDC + 1) IB  βDC IB
For βDC is larger than ( )50, we usually assume that:
IE = IC = βDC IB
Substitute IE into the biasing equation, we have:
VBB = RB IB + VBE + RE (βDC IB)
VBB –VBE = (RB + βDC RE) IB
Or IB = (VBB –VBE) / (RB + βDC RE) This is the biasing base current.
 IC = βDC IB --- Transistor operates in the active region
 Applying KVL around the output circuit we obtain the dc load line
equation:
VCC = RC IC + VCE + RE IE For βDC  50, assume IE = IC,
VCE = VCC – (RC + RE) IC This is the transistor collector-emitter voltage.
 The operating point (Q point) of the transistor is at (V CE, IC).

Q-point
 IC and VCE represents the operating-point of the transistor on the
output characteristic. It is also known as the Quiescent Point (Q-
point) or the bias-point of the transistor, Q-point (VCEQ, ICQ ).
 The following are the same:
• Biasing point
• Quiescent point
• Operating point (OP)
• DC point Q-Point
 Occasionally, a subscript Q is added to the

current or the voltage variables so to indicate
the Q-point values.
 The Q-point (quiescent-point) specifies the dc output current IC and

the dc output voltage VCE when no ac signal is superimposed at the
input of the amplifier.
 Determined by using transistor output characteristic and DC load line
Solution
Example
Step 1: Determine the base current I B.
The silicon transistor shown
Apply KVL around the input circuit:
below (βDC = 200) is used in an
amplifier circuit having a base VBB = RBIB + VBE + βDC IB RE
bias resistor RB = 10kΩ, a base 10V= 10kΩ IB +0.7V + 200 x 680 IB
voltage source VBB = 10V, a IB = (10V – 0.7V) / (10kΩ + 200
collector resistor RC = 100Ω, an x 680)= 63.7A
emitter resistor RE = 680Ω and a
d.c. power supply VCC = 20V.
Step 2: Determine IC.
Determine the operating point
(VCEQ, ICQ )of the transistor. IC= βDC IB= 200 x 63.7  A= 12.74 mA
IC
Step 3: Determine VCE.
RC Applying KVL around the output circuit
VRC
RB + 20V = 100ΩIC + VCE + 680ΩIE
IB
VCE VCC Since βDC is large, IE = IC
+ VCE= 20V – 100xIC – 680IE
VRB IE
VBE VCE= 20V –100x12.74mA – 680 x
VBB 12.74mA = 10.06V
RE VRE
The operating point of the transistor is at (VCEQ =
10.06V, ICQ = 12.74mA).
Potentials at base, emitter and collector
IC
RC VRC
IB RB VB VC
VCE VCC
VRB VBE VE
VBB VRE
RE
IE
 Potential at base:
VB = VBB – VRB = VBB – IBRB
Or VB = VRE + VBE = IERE + VBE
 Potential at emitter:
VE = IERE
Or VE = VCC – VRC– VCE= VCC–ICRC–VCE
Or VE = VBB – VRB– VBE= VBB–IBRB–VBE
 Potential at collector:
VC = VCC – VRC = VCC – ICRC
Or VC = VRE + VCE = IERE + VCE
Exercise 1 Solution
Step 1: Determine IB.
Find IB, IC, VCE and determine the Apply KVL around the input circuit:
operating region of this transistor VBB = RBIB + VBE + βDC IB RE
and indicate Q-point. 5V = 52kΩIB+0.7V+100 x 2.2KΩ IB
DC=100 IB=(5V–0.7V)/(52kΩ+100 x 2.2KΩ)
= 15.8A
IC
Step 2: Determine the collector current I C.
IC= βDC IB= 100 x 15.8A= 1.58 mA
RC VRC
4.7K Step 3: Determine VCE.
RB +
Ω
IB
52K VCE VCC Applying KVL around the output circuit
Ω + 20V
IE 20V = 4.7KΩIC + VCE + 2.2KΩIE
VRB VBE
VBB Since βDC is large, IE = IC
5V RE VRE VCE=20V – 4.7KΩIC – 2.2KΩIC
2.2KΩ VCE=20V–4.7KΩ x 1.58mA–2.2KΩ
x1.58mA = 9.098V
The Q-point of the transistor

Because VBE=0.7V>0 --BE forward biased
is at:
∴VBC=VBE–VCE=0.7–9.098=–8.398V<0
(VCEQ = 9.098V, ICQ = 1.58mA).
---BC reverse biased
∴this transistor is in active region
Exercise 2 Solution:
Find VB, VC, VE of the Step 1: find IB

following transistor circuit. IB = (VBB – VBE) / (RB + βDC RE)
= (4–0.7)/(47KΩ+1001.8KΩ)
=14.54A
IC
Step 2: find VB
VB = VBB – IBRB=4–14.5 A 47KΩ=3.32V
RC
2.2K
RB Ω Step 3: find IC
IB C
47K B VCC IC=DCIB=100 14.5 A=1.45mA
DC=100 15V
Ω
E
VBB Step 4: find VC
4V RE
VC=VCC-ICRC=15-1.45mA 2.2KΩ=11.81V
1.8KΩ
Step 5: find VE
Because DC>50, IE=IC
∴VE=IERE=ICRE=1.45mA 1.8KΩ=2.61V
DC operating point (Q-point)
 A transistor must first be dc biased before it can be operated as an ac
signal amplifier.
 A transistor, like a diode, allows current to flow only in one direction.
In order to reproduce and amplify a fluctuating input current signal,
the transistor must first be input with a dc base current such that the
fluctuating signal can be imposed correctly onto the base current.
iC = IC + ic
C
iB = IB + ib
B
E
ib iB
IB
+ ib
time IB
o + =
_
Fluctuating input ac time time
o o
current signal DC base current Resultant base current
DC operating point (Q-point) (cont’d)
 After setting the desired dc base current, the input current
signal at the base terminal is amplified, and its wave-shape is
accurately reproduced in the collector current.
 The output signal iC has a larger amplitude than the input
signal iB.
 The transistor is said to be biased when a certain dc current
and voltage conditions are established.
 The dc collector current IC and the dc collector-to-emitter
voltage VCE are used to specify this conditions.
iC
iB
Ic
C
iB + iC = β iB
B vCE
E -
time time
DC load line
 The dc load line is a graph that represents all the possible
combinations of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.
 Q-point on the dc load line that indicates the values of VCE and IC
for an amplifier at rest, (Quiescent means at rest).
 A questcent amplifier is one that has no ac signal applied and
therefore has constant dc values of IC and VCE.
 To determine the Q-point IC (mA)
on dc load line, we must IB = 90
know: IC(sat)
IB = 80 dc load line
--the biasing base current, mA
IB from the biasing or input mA IB = 70
circuit;
8
--the dc load line of the mA I = 60
7 B
transistor circuit.
 A straight line intersecting the 6 mAIB = 50
vertical axis at approximately
IC(sat) and the horizontal axis at 5 Q-point mAIB = 40 (IBQ)
VCE(off). ICQ
4 mAI = 30
 IC(sat) occurs when transistor B
operating in saturation region 3 mAI = 20
VCC B
I Csat  2 mA
RC VCE  0
IB = 10
 VCE(off) occurs when transistor 1
mA IB = 0 mA V (V
operating in cut-off region CE
VCE( off )  VCC  I C RC

5 VCEQ 10 15 V
CE(off)
I C 0
Example
• If the dc load line has a collector saturation current
IC(sat) = 8mA and a cut-off collector-emitter voltage
VCE(cut-off) = 15V. The biasing base current IB was 40A. Draw
dc load line on output characteristic. We can determine the
Q-point is at ICQ = 4.12mA and VCEQ = 7.23V.
IC (mA)
IB = 90
IC(sat) IB = 80
mA
8 mA IB = 70
7 mA I = 60
B
6 mAIB = 50
5 Q-point
mAI = 40 (IBQ)
ICQ B
Dc load line
4 mAI = 30
B
3 mAIB = 20
2
mA
IB = 10
1
mAIB = 0 mA V
CE
5 VCEQ 10 15 VCE(off) (V)
DC load line equation  The KVL around the output loop
equation is given by the following
expression:
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE
 For values of transistor βDC > 50,

IC assume IE  IC
Substitute this to the above
equation, we have:
RC
 VCC = IC RC + VCE + IC RE
+ Or VCE = VCC - IC (RC + RE)
IB RB
VCE VCC
+  This equation can be arranged into
the following expression.
VBE
VBB IC = (VCC - VCE ) / (RC + RE )
RE --- dc load Line equation of the
amplifier
IE
 This is a linear equation drawn
onto the output characteristic
curve of the BJT. This line is known
as the dc load line of the amplifier
circuit.
Draw dc load line on the output characteristic of a BJT
 From the dc load line equation: I C = (VCC – VCE ) / (RC + RE )
 As this is a linear equation, we need to identify only two points on the
line; and by joining these two points, the dc load line is then
constructed on the output characteristic of the BJT.
 Point 1: Let IC = 0, then VCE(off) = VCC
This is the horizontal axis intersect point and is known as the Cut-off
Point.
 Point 2: Let VCE = 0, then IC(sat) = VCC / (RC + RE)
This is the vertical axis intersect point and is known as the Saturation
point
IC
IC Saturation
point
IC(sat)
RC
+
IB RB DC Load
VCE
+ VCC Line
VBE Cut-off
VBB RE point
IE
VCE
VCE(off)
Effect of changes in RC or RE on dc load line
 The gradient of the dc load line is equal to 1/(R C + RE).
 Changes in RC or RE or both resistors (RC + RE) will affect the
gradient of the dc load line.
 However, the horizontal axis intersect point will remain the pivot
at VCE = VCC while the dc load line tilts towards or away from the
origin of the co-ordinate due to changes in R C or RE.
dc load line equation:

IC uc E )
1 VCC
IC   VCE 
red + R
(R en
es
Wh
RC  RE RC  RE
C
VCC
I C(sat) 
RC  RE  When (RC + RE) increases, dc
load line becomes less steeper.
 When (RC + RE) decreases, dc
r ea E )
se s
load line becomes more steeper.

R
(R en
C +
Wh
inc
Origin Pivot VCC VCE

(0,0) Point
Effect of changes in VCC on dc load line
The gradient = 1/(RC + RE) of the dc load line will remain
unchanged while the supply voltage VCC under go changes.
The dc load line moves parallel away or towards the origin
of the co-ordinate when VCC increases or reduces.
IC
dc load line equation:
es
en 1 VCC
as
Wh
CC IC   VCE 
re
VCC
V
inc RC  RE RC  RE
I C(sat) 
RC  RE
V en
es
Wh
uc
red C
C
VCE
Origin (0,0) VCC VCC1
VCC2
Mid-point bias
 It is often desirable to start the design of

the amplifier by biasing the BJT bias near
the midpoint of its dc load line.
 At midpoint bias,
IC= IC(sat) /2, and VCE = VCC/2
or IC = 0.5 IC(sat) , and VCE = 0.5 VCC
Mid-point bias (cont’d)
IC (mA)
ic = βib ib(µA)
IC(sat)
Q point at
ICQ midpoint biasI time
BQ
0.5IC(sat)
0.5VCC VCC VCE (V)

VCEQ
Note that when ic is positive, vce
becomes negative. vce
There is 180o phase shift Max. vce without
between ic and vce. distortion
time
DC equivalent circuit
 To transform the amplifier circuit to its dc equivalent circuit, the
following procedures should be followed.
1. Reduce all ac sources to ZERO.
2. Remove all capacitors from the circuit.
3. Replace all inductors or coils with a wire (or short-circuit).
4. Redraw the amplifier circuit.
 DC equivalent circuit is used to determine the dc biasing currents I B & IC
and the dc biasing voltage VCE of the amplifier circuit.
CE amplifier DC equivalent circuit:

VCC VCC
RC RC
C C
Vout
B B
E RB E
RB Equivalent to
Vin RL
RE RE
VBB VBB
DC equivalent circuit (cont’d)
CE amplifier DC equivalent circuit:

(voltage divider bias)
VCC
VCC
R1 RC R1 RC
C
B Equivalent to
E
Vin R2 RE R2 RE
DC equivalent circuit exercise 1
Draw dc equivalent circuit of the
following amplifier.
VCC VCC
RC RC
RS C Vout C
B B
E E
Vin
RB RL Equivalent to RB
RE
RE
VBB VBB
DC equivalent circuit exercise 2
Draw dc equivalent circuit of the
following amplifier.
VCC
VCC
R1 RC R1 RC
C
B
Equivalent to
E
Vin R2 RE RL R2 RE
Analysis for Voltage Divider bias
 A voltage-divider biased BJT amplifier is shown below.
 It is the most commonly used biasing circuit because it can have
voltage gain, current gain or power gain.
 Advantages of voltage divider bias
® It has a stable Q point.
® Single dc power supply VCC.
 Disadvantage of voltage divider bias method
® The biasing circuit is more complicated
+VCC
R1 I1 IC RC
Cin Vout
IB
Q Cout
Vin R2 I2 RE
IE
Analysis for Voltage Divider bias (cont’d)
 Step 1: Convert dc equivalent circuit to Thevenin’s equivalent biasing
circuit.
+VCC +VCC
RTH
R1 RC A
R1
A A VTH
Thevenin’s equivalent
Q
R2 R2 B
RE
B B +VCC
DC equivalent DC biasing circuit
IC
RC
circuit
 The dc biasing circuit formed by VCC, R1 & R2 across
RTH IB
point A & B is first converted to its Thevenin’s
Equivalent. Q
 The component values of the Thevenin’s Equivalent A
Circuit are given as follows: VTH IE RE
R 2 VCC R 1R 2 B
VTH  R TH 
R1  R 2 R1  R 2
biasing circuit
 Step 2: Determine the base current IB from Thevenin’s
equivalent biasing circuit.
Apply KVL on the input loop,

VTH = IBRTH + VBE + IERE (IE  IC = βDC IB for large βDC)
+VCC
The base current IB is IC

RC
IB = (VTH - VBE) / (RTH + βDC RE ) RTH IB

Q
A
VTH IE RE
B
Thevenin’s equivalent biasing

circuit
+VCC
 Step 3: Determine IC.
Since the transistor must operate in the active IC
RC
region, the collector current IC can be
determined as: I = β I RTH IB
C DC B
Q
 Step 4: Determine VCE. A
Express the KVL for the circuit that the VTH IE RE
collector current IC passes through:
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE B
(IE  IC = βDC IB for large βDC)
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IC RE Thevenin’s equivalent biasing
circuit
The collector-emitter voltage VCE is
given as:
VCE = VCC - IC (RC + RE)
 Potential at Base, Collector and Emitter:

VB = VTH - IB RTH VC = VCC - IC RC VE = IE RE=ICRE
Example (***) Solution:
Determine the Q-point of the Step 1: Convert dc equivalent circuit to

transistor with a βDC = 100 of the Thevenin’s equivalent biasing circuit.
voltage-divider biased amplifier. VTH = R2 / (R1 + R2) x VCC
Draw dc load line and indicate Q- = 5.6k /(10k + 5.6k) x 10
point on dc load line. = 3.59V
+VCC = 10V RTH = R1 x R2 / (R1 + R2)
RC = 1k = (10k x5.6k)/(10k+5.6k)
R1
= 3.59 k
10k Cout
Cin C Vout
B
QbDC = 100
E DC equivalent
Vin R2 circuit: RC
5.6k RE +VCC RTH 1k
560 10V +
R1 RC 3.59k bDC _ VC
+I _ +
10KΩ 1KΩ + B VBE_ 100 C
Q VTH +
_ I RE 10
3.59V E
_ 560 V
R2 RE
5.6KΩ 560Ω
biasing circuit
Example (***)(cont’d)
 Step 2: Determine the base current IB from Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.
Apply KVL on the input loop,
VTH = IBRTH + VBE + IERE
(IE IC= DC IB for large DC >50)
IB = (VTH–VBE) / (RTH + DC RE)
= (3.59V–0.7V)/(3.59k+560x100)=48.5A
 Step 3: Determine the collector current IC.

RC =
Since the transistor must operate in the
RTH 1k
active region, the collector current IC can be
3.59k Q +
determined as: bDC _ VCC = 10V
IC = DCIB=100x48.5A= 4.85mA  _ +
+ 100
IB VBE_
VTH +
+
_ IE RE
3.59V
_ 560
Example (***)(cont’d)
 Step 4: Determine the collector- RC =
emitter voltage VCE.
RTH 1k
Express the KVL for the output
circuit: 3.59k Q +
bDC _ VCC = 10
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IERE + _ +
IB VBE_ 100
(IE  IC = DC IB for large DC >50) +
VTH +
VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE) _ IE RE
= 10V – 4.85 mA x (1k + 560 )
3.59V
_ 560
= 2.434V
IC(mA)
The Q-point is at (2.434V, 4.85mA) Saturation
point
IC(sat)=6.41
 Step 5: plot dc load line and indicate
Q-point Q
IC(sat)=VCC/(RC+RE)
4.85
D.C. Load
=10/ (1k + 560) Line
=6.41mA Cutoff
VCE(off)=VCC=10V point
0 VCE(V)
2.434 VCE(off)=10V
Solution:
Voltage divider biasing
Step1: DC equivalent circuit:
CE amplifier Exercise
(***) +VCC
A voltage divider biasing CE
12V
R1 RC
amplifier is shown below. Draw
dc equivalent circuit and 22KΩ 2.7KΩ
Thevenine’s equivalent biasing Q
circuit. Determine Q-point and R2
indicate it on dc load line. RE
10KΩ 2.2KΩ
+VCC = 12V Step 2: Thevenine’s equivalent biasing circuit:
R1 RC = 2.7k
Cout VCC = 12V
22k
Cin C Vout
B RC
bDC = 100 2.7k VTH =R2 /(R1+R2) x VCC
RTH
Vin R2 E bDC = 10/(10+22) x 12
10k RE +I _ + 100
= 3.75V
V BE_ RTH =R1 x R2/(R1+R2)
VTH +
B
2.2K +
_ IE RE = (10x22)/(10+22)
_ 2.2K = 6.88 k
Voltage divider biasing CE amplifier Exercise (***)(cont’d)
Step 3: find IB VCC = 12V
IB = (VTH – VBE) / (RTH + βDC RE )
=(3.75–0.7)/(6.88KΩ+100  2.2KΩ)=13.44A
RC
RTH
2.7k
Step 4: find IC 6.88KΩ
bDC
IC= βDC IB =10013.44 A=1.344mA +I _ + 100
VBE_
VTH +
B
Step 5: find VCE, because DC>50, ICIE +
_ I RE
VCE=VCC–IC(RC+RE)=12–1.344mA(2.7+2.2)KΩ 3.75V E
_ 2.2K
=5.414V
Q-point is at (5.414V, 1.344mA) IC(mA)
Saturation
Step 6: draw dc load line and IC(sat)=2.449 point
indicate Q-point on dc load line
IC(sat)=VCC/(RC+RE) Q
1.344 DC Load
=12/(2.7+2.2)KΩ
Line Cutoff
=2.449mA
point
VCE(off)=VCC=12V
V (V)
0 5.414 VCE(off)=12V CE
AC equivalent circuit
 To transform the amplifier circuit to its ac equivalent
circuit, the following procedures should be followed.
1. Reduce all dc sources to ZERO.
2. Replace all capacitors with a wire (or short-circuit).
3. Remove all inductors or coils from the circuit.
4. Redraw the amplifier circuit.
VCC
R1 RC C
C Vout B Vout
B
E
E Equivalent to Vin
RC
Vin R2 RE R1 R2
AC small-signal equivalent circuit
 In order to better visualise the operation of a transistor in an
amplifier circuit, it is often useful to represent the BJT by an
equivalent circuit.
 An equivalent circuit uses various internal transistor
parameters (usually specified by the manufacturer of the BJT)
to represent the BJT’s operation.
 We would limit ourselves to one type of BJT’s model:
- The Norton Equivalent of Eber Moll’s model
C
C
B
b r '
B ac e b i
ac b
E
E
Norton equivalent of Eber Moll’s model
AC small-signal ac equivalent circuit:
C
equivalent circuit
B Vout
(cont’d)
 Using the Norton equivalent form of E
Vin RC
the Eber Moll’s BJT model convert
R1 R2
the ac equivalent circuit to its ac
small signal equivalent circuit.
 Analysis of this small-signal

equivalent circuit is much simpler
than the actual amplifier circuit.
ac small-signal equivalent circuit:
ib B C
vout
R1//R2 ic
vin b r' b i RC
ace ac b
E
AC Analysis of a Large-Signal
Transistor Amplifier
 When the small-signal peak-peak ac emitter current is less than 10% of the dc quiescent
emitter current, the Eber Moll’s equivalent circuit can be used.
 When the small-signal does not satisfy the above 10% condition, large-signal analyzes
will be used to determine the BJT amplifier performance. The out-put signal could be
distorted.
large-signal ac equivalent circuit:

ic
C
B ib
vce
E
RC vout RL
vin
R1 R2 ie
Construction of the AC
Load Line
 The transistor amplifier has two different loads
for dc and ac conditions. They are the dc load RDC
and ac load rac respectively. Hence, dc and ac
load lines are drawn on the output characteristic.
 The dc load line is used to determine the
operation point. The ac load line is used to
analyze signal operation such as gain and
maximum signal output.
 Drawing the ac load line can be done by finding
the ac saturation and cut-off points. This method
is known as ac Saturation and cut-off method.
Construction of the AC Load Line (cont’d)
 The ac load resistance rac is defined as:
rac = RC // RL = RC RL / (RC + RL)
and using Ohm’s Law: v  vce
ic  
out
rac rac
where: ic is the change in collector current.
 Hence, – (1/rac) is the gradient of ac load line on the output characteristic.
 (RC + RE) is known as the dc load resistance RDC, and – (1/RDC) is the gradient of
dc load line.
 1/rac is always relatively larger than 1/RDC.
ic
C
ib
B vce
E
RC vout RL
vin
R2 ie
R1
DC and ac load lines
 Distance y is: ic(sat) – ICQ = ( VCEQ / rac ) where: (1/rac) = (y / VCEQ )
therefore ic(sat) = ICQ + ( VCEQ / rac )
 Distance x is: VCEQ – vce(off) = ( ICQ rac ) where: (1/rac) = (ICQ / x)
therefore vce(off) = VCEQ + (ICQ rac )
 Using above equations to calculate the values of ic(sat) and vce(off) With these two points the ac
load line can be drawn passing through
I (mA)
the Q-point.
C
ic(sat) AC Load Line
VCC V
IC(sat)   CC
R C  R E R DC
ic y
ic(p) Q-Point
ICQ
DC Load Line
VCE(V)
0
VCEQ x vce(off) VCE(off) = VCC
Graphical Analysis of the AC Operation
 Using ac load line, we can
estimate the following:
– current gain, IC (mA)
– maximum
unclipped signal.
AC Load Line
ic(sat) = 6 mA
ib(p) = 10µA
IBQ = 40µA
ib
ic
t
ic(p) =1mA
ICQ = 2.5 mA
t Q
DC Load Line
VCE (V)
0 VCEQ = 7 V vce(off) = 12 V
vce
t
From Figure below,
Example 1 (a) Current Gain, Ai = βac= ic(p) / ib(p) = 1mA/10µA = 100
(b) Maximum unclipped output current signal:
Maximum ic swing = ic(p) = 2.5 mA – 0 mA = 2.5 mA
IC (mA)
AC Load Line
ic(sat) = 6 mA
ib(p) = 10µA
IBQ = 40µA
ib
ic
t
ic(p) =1mA
ICQ = 2.5 mA
t Q
DC Load Line
VCE (V)
0 VCEQ = 7 V vce(off) = 12 V
vce
t
Example 1 (cont’d)
 when 0 < ib(p) < ib2(p) , ic is
ib3(p)
unclipped.
ib
 When ib2(p) < ib(p) < ib3(p) , part ib2(p)
of the negative cycle of ic is IC (mA)

clipped at cutoff region. ic ib1(p)
ic3(p) ic(sat)
 When ib3(p) < ib(p) , part of the t
negative cycle of ic is clipped ic2(p) AC Load Line
at cutoff region and part of IBQ
the positive cycle of ic is

clipped at saturation region. ic1(p)
ICQ Q
t
VCE (V)
0 VCEQ vce(off)
vce
t
vce2(p)
vce1(p)
Example 1 (cont’d)
 we can conclude the maximum unclipped output voltage

signal vce(p) as:
1. When Q-pint is located in the middle of the ac load line. It allows
maximum output amplitude without distortion (unclipped). This is
known as optimum Q-point. It has maximum undistorted output
signal swing along the ac load line.
vce(p) = VCEQ = ICQ rac
2. When Q-point is set closer to the saturation point, than
VCEQ < ICQ rac
vce(p) = VCEQ , for VCEQ < ICQ rac
3. When Q-point is set closer to the cut-off point, than
ICQ rac < VCEQ
vce(p) = ICQ rac , for ICQ rac < VCEQ
Example 2
Refer to the following, from the given ac load line, determine:
(a) the ac load resistance rac, and
(b) the maximum unclipped output voltage and current swing.
Solution: IC (mA)
(a) The gradient of ac load line is:
(1/rac) = ic(sat) / vce(off) AC Load Line
ic(sat) = 9 mA
rac = vce(off) / ic(sat)
= 10 / 9m
ICQ = 6.93 mA Q
= 1.11 k
(b) Since Q-point is set closer to the
saturation point, therefore the
maximum unclipped output voltage swing is:
vce(p) = VCEQ = 2.3 V
and maximum unclipped output current
swing is:
0
ic(p) = 9 mA – 6.93 mA = 2.07 mA VCEQ vce(off) VCE (V)
= 2.3 V = 10 V
Amplifier Concepts
 An amplifier is a two-port network that takes an input signal and
produces at its output a replica of the signal of higher magnitude.
 Electrically, an amplifier consists of passive components (resistors,
capacitors) and active components (BJT and FETs)
Vout(t)
vin(t)
input amplifier output
 Amplifiers can be classified according to:

 the types of signals they amplify i.e. ac only, dc only or both ac and dc
signals,
 the type of amplification they provide e.g. voltage, current or power.
Amplifier gain
 The definition of amplifier gain A is the amplitude ratio of
the output signal to the input signal.
 The gain of an amplifier is a multiplier that exists between

the circuit input and output.
 There are three types of gain: voltage gain, current gain,

and power gain.
Vout( P )
A  is the gain magnitude of the amplifier,
Vin( P )
    is inthe phase response of the amplifier.
out
Voltage amplifier
The equivalent network model of a voltage amplifier is shown below. It accepts an input signal vin
and produces at its output vout
rin ---the input resistance (or impedance) of the amplifier.
rout ---the output resistance (or impedance) of the amplifier.
Av(oc) --- the open-circuit voltage gain of the amplifier.
In amplifier design, rin, rout and Av(oc) are parameters determined by the designer to meet
performance specifications.
In practice, the overall performance of the Equivalent network model

amplifier system has to take into consideration
other external factors. Two important factors are:
 vin r out vout
--the signal source i.e. the circuit that is
providing the signal to the amplifier. +
 --the load connected to the output of the rS
RL
amplifier. r AV(oc)v in
in
For example, if we are designing an amplifier forVS
-
a microphone, the signal source is the
microphone, and load can be the loudspeaker.
voltage amplifier
Effect of source and load on voltage amplifier
 In the following figure, vs is a signal source with internal resistance rs
 The output of the voltage amplifier is connected to a load circuit RL.
 At the input of the amplifier, (using voltage divider rule)
rin rin *subscript P
vin  vs or v
in( P )  vs ( P ) represents the
rin  rs rin  rs peak value
 At the output of the amplifier, (using voltage divider rule)
RL RL  rin 
vout  Av(oc)vin  Av(oc) vs 
RL  rout RL  rout  rin  rs 
rS rout
signal vs RL
vin rin Av(oc) vin vout
source
(cont’d)
 The overall gain of the amplifier system, denoted as Av, is
defined as
Output voltage signal across the load
Av 
Input voltage signal produced by source
vout RL rin
  Av(oc)
vs RL  rout rin  rs
 This equation shows that the overall gain Av is influenced by parameters outside
of the amplifier. These parameters are:
i) the signal source resistance rs, and

ii) the load, RL.
(cont’d)
 To minimize the effect of these parameters, an voltage
amplifier should have a large input resistance rin and
small output resistance rout. Why ?:
 When rout is very small ( 0), RL  rout  RL

RL R
 L 1
 Hence, RL  rout RL
rin  rs  rin
 Similarly, when
r rin is very
r large ( ),
in
 in
1
rin  rs rin
 Hence,
Ideally, raout
 When voltage rin =rout,= the
amplifier
= 0 and 0 and rin = . gain Av = Av(oc), making it
overall
independent of the signal source and load resistances.
Example
rS rout
In circuit, it is given
that rs = 100 Ω,
rin = 1 KΩ, Rout = 70 Ω,
RL = 20 kΩ, signal
vs vin rin Av(oc) vin vout RL
source
Av(oc) = 20 and vs is a
sinusoidal signal of
amplitude 0.5V,
determine the
amplitude of vin, vout
and the overall gain,Av.
rin 1000
vin( P )  vs ( P )  ( 0.5 )  0.455 [V]
rin  rs 1000  100
rin RL
Av  Av(oc)
rin  rs RL  rout
1000 20000
 ( 20 )  18.12
1000  100 20000  70
vout( P )  Av  vs ( P )  18.12 x 0.5 = 9.06 [V]
Voltage amplifier exercise
In a voltage amplifier, given that rS rout
rS=50Ω, rin=2.2kΩ, rout=50Ω,
RL=50KΩ, AV(OC) =18. When
source signal is 0.3sin(2ft) signal
vs vin rin Av(oc) vin vout RL
determine the amplitude of Vin, source
Vout and overall voltage gain.
Solution:
rin 2200
vin( P )  vs ( P )  ( 0.3 )  0.293 [V]
rin  rs 2200  50
RL 50000
vout( P )  Av(oc)vin( P )   18  0.293  5.27 [V]
RL  rout 50000  50
vout( P ) 5.27
Av =   17.57
vs ( P ) 0.3
Current amplifier
 For a current amplifier, both the input and the output signals are current
signals.
 Applying current divider rule at both the input and the output loops,
rs
iin  is
rs  rin
rout rout rs
iout  Ai ( sc )iin  Ai ( sc ) is
rout  RL rout  RL rs  rin
 where Ai(sc) is the short-circuit current gain of the amplifier.
rout rs
 Overall current gain Ai  Ai ( sc )
rout  RL rs  rin
i in i out
Ideally, a current amplifier
rout =  Ω and rin = 0 Ω. is
rs r in Ai(sc) i in r out RL
Therefore Ai= Ai(sc)
current amplifier
Rin and Rout of BJT amplifier
 Make comparison between the a.c. small-signal BJT amplifier circuit
and the current amplifier circuit.
 A.c. small-signal amplifier circuit:
RS ib B C
vout
R1//R2 ic
vin b r' b i RC
ace ac b
We can conclude the followings:
E rin = R1 // R2 // (βac re’ )
rout = RC
 Current amplifier circuit: Ai(sc) iin = βac ib
i in i out
is Ai(sc)i in
rs r in r out RL
Summary
1. Use the transistor for amplifying a signal without distortion, biasing such that the base-emitter
junction is sufficiently forward biased (V BE0.7V).
2. Quiescent point (Q-point) is a dc operating point for the transistor.
3. The procedure to form dc equivalent circuit is:
• Reduce all ac signal sources to zero; i.e. replace a voltage source by a short circuit, and a
current source by an open circuit.
• Replace all capacitors by open circuits.
• Replace all inductors by short circuits (if any).
4. Voltage-divider bias ( change the circuit to Thevenin’s equivalent circuit):
VTH = (VCC x R2) / (R1 + R2) RTH = R1 // R2
5. Biasing Equation (transistor dc bias circuit):
Apply KVL on the input loop (IB and VBE),
VBB = IBRB + IERE+ VBE
For a transistor with large βDC(>50),
VBB = IB( RB + βDCRE) + VBE
Using this equation to determine IB, than using
IC =βDC IB to determine IC.
6. DC load line equation (transistor dc bias circuit with RE):
Apply KVL on the output loop (IC and VCE),
VCC = ICRC + IERE+ VCE
For a transistor with large βDC(>50), IE = IC,
VCC = IC ( RB + RE) + VCE
Using this equation to determine VCE.
Summary
7. Power dissipated by the BJT, PD = VCEQ x ICQ
8. Draw the dc load line on the output characteristic:
i) Point on X axis, let IC = 0, VCE(OFF) = VCC
ii) Point on Y axis, let VCE = 0, IC(SAT) = VCC / (RC + RE)
9. Effect of changes in RC or RE on dc Load Line:
The gradient of the dc load line is equal to 1/(R C + RE).
Changes in RC or RE or both resistors (RC + RE) will affect the gradient of the d.c. load line.
However, the x-axis intersect point will remain pivot at V CE = VCC.
10. Effect of changes in VCC on dc Load Line:
The gradient = 1/(RC + RE) of the dc load line will remain unchanged while the supply voltage
VCC under go changes. The dc load line moves parallel away or towards the origin of the co-
ordinate when VCC increases or reduces.
11. BJT as a switch:
The transistor is ‘on’ and it is in the saturation region when the Vin is high.
The transistor is ‘off’ and it is in the cut-off region when the Vin is low.
12. Ideally, for a voltage amplifier rin = Ω, and rout = 0Ω.
13. Ideally, for a current amplifier rin = 0Ω, and rout = Ω.
251
Design of BJT Amplifiers
1. Types of BJT amplifiers
2. BJT amplifier biasing design
3. BJT Optimum Q point
4. CE amplifiers and Design
5. CE with RE amplifiers and Design
6. EF amplifiers and Design
7. CB amplifiers and Design
8. Design of RC Coupled BJT amplifiers
252
Transistor Amplifiers
useful as

into
network
maximum unclipped
BJT Amplifier
• How transistors can be used to amplify a
signal
254
1. Types of BJT amplifiers
VCC
VCC
Rac = Rc//RL RC Rac =( Rc//RL)+RE
R2 RC
Rdc = Rc+RE vo Rdc = Rc+RE R2
Ri CB CC vo
Ri CB CC
RL
vi R1 RL
RE CE vi R1
RE
(a) Common Emitter (b) Common Emitter with RE
High AV and low Ri
Low AV and high Ri
Voltage amplifications
VCC Stability
VCC applications
Rac = RE//RL Rac =( Rc//RL)+(RE//Ri) RC

R2 Rdc = Rc+RE R2
Rdc = RE vo
Ri CB CC
CC vo Ri RL
CB
vi R1 R1 CE
RE RL RE vi
(c) Emitter Follower (d) Common Base

Very low Ro and high Ri Very low Ri and high AV
Buffer applications High Frequency applications
2. BJT amplifier biasing design
VCC
Designing the biasing equation
R2
IC IC
RB V B
VB  
IB IB
R1 VBB
RE RE
R2 Design equation
R R R1 R R1 R
RB  R1 // R2  1 2 and VBB  Vcc  2 Vcc  Vcc B
R1  R2 R1  R2 R2 R1  R2 R2
R1 V R  V R R2 R V /V RB
VBB  VCC   CC  1  2   CC  1  2  R1   B CC BB 
R1  R2  VBB R1  VBB R1 VCC / VBB   1 VCC / VBB   1 1  VBB / VCC 
I V  0.7
VBB  I B RB  0.7  IC RE  C RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  BB
  RB   R
   E R1 Design equation

VBB  0.7 V  0.7
If RB  0.1 RE then IC   BB or VBB  1.1 IC RE  0.7
0.1 RE  1.1  RE

    RE
RB Design condition VBB Design equation
VCC
3. BJT Optimum Q point
IC
Rac = Rc//RL RC IC
Rdc = Rc+RE R2
Vcc/Rdc
vo
Ri CB CC
Rdc
RL
vi R1 VCE
Vcc
VCE
CE Vcc
RE
common emitter 1. Find VCC point 2. Draw Rdc line from VCC
IC IC IC
Rac Rac
IBQ IBQ
ICQ ICQ Q ICQ
Q Q
Rdc ICQ Rdc Rdc
VCEQ VCEQ
VCE VCE VCE
Vcc VCEQ V Vcc Vcc
3. Locate Q-pt at crossing 4. Draw Rac line passing Q- 5. Note ICQ and VCEQ
of IB and Rdc line pt. DV = RacxICQ
6. When sine wave signal is applied to the Base circuit of BJT
IC
Rac
ICQ Q
Rdc
IC(pp) VCEQ
VCE
Vcc
VCE(pp)=VO(pp)
6. sine wave will vary IBQ to produce IB(pp) and therefore IC(pp)
and VCE(pp) will be produced. Now VCE(pp) will becomes output
voltage at the collector.
If Q point is at High IC
When the Input wave increases IB(pp) , then VCE(pp) will increase
IC
Rac
ICQ Q Rdc
VCEQ
VCE
Vcc
VCEQ=VCC-ICQRdc ICQRac
lower half cycle of the

output voltage wave will
be clipped due to
saturate IC
If Q point is at Low IC
When the Input wave increases IB(pp) , then VCE(pp) will increase
IC
Rac
Rdc
Q
ICQ
VCEQ
VCE
Vcc
VCEQ=VCC-ICQRdc ICQRac
upper half cycle of the
output voltage wave will
be clipped due to
cutoff IC
BJT Optimum Q point Design Equation
Design of Optimum Collector current
IC
(c) If the Input wave increases
Rac IBQ , then both ICQ and VCEQ will
increase where both half cycle of
ICQ Q the output voltage wave will be
Rdc clipped simultaneously due to
cutoff and saturation in the case
VCEQ
shown because of optimum
Vcc collector current.
Peak  to  peak output voltage swing

VCEQ=VCC-ICQRdc ICQRac V ( pp )  2  I R
o CQ ac
Vo(pp) Design equation

They are equal for optimum output
ICQ Rac  VCEQ  VCC  ICQ Rdc

VCC Optimum ICQ
ICQ 
Rac  Rdc Design equation
Summary of Design Equations
(dc design equations for all CE, CE with RE, EF, CB
configurations)
VCC Optimum ICQ Design equation

ICQ 
Rac  Rdc
RB Design equation if no other ac
Take RB  0.1 RE
specifications are not given
R
VBB  IBRB  0.7  ICRE  IC  RE  B    0.7 VBB Design equation for any RB
 
If RB  0.1RE then VBB  1.1ICRE  0.7 VBB Design equation if RB = 0.1 b RE
VCC V
R2  RB CC R2 Design equation
VBB
RC
R2
RB R1 Design equation
R1 
1  VBB / VCC 
R1 Vo (pp)  2  ICQRac Vo(pp) Design equation

RE
Design Example
• Draw CE amplifier circuit
• Design bias resistance R1 and R2 and find the maximum output voltage
swing Vo(pp) Given specifications are VCC = 5V, RC = 1k-W , RL = 1k-W , RE =
100 W, b =180
VCC 5
VCC ICQ    3.13mA
Rac  Rdc (1k // 1k)  (1k  0.1k)
Rac = Rc//RL RC Take RB  0.1 RE then
R2
Rdc = Rc+RE CB
vo RB  0.1 RE  0.1  180  0.1 k  1.8 k
Ri CC
R
RL VBB  I B RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  RE  B    0.7
vi R1  
RE CE
If RB  0.1 RE then VBB  1.1 IC RE  0.7
common emitter or VBB  1.1  3.13 mA  0.1 k  0.7  1.044V

R V 5
VBB  VCC B or R2  RB CC  1.8  8.62 k
R2 VBB 1.044
VCC R RB 1.8 k
 1  2  R1    2.28 k
VBB R1 1  VBB / VCC  1  ( 1.044 / 5 )
Vo ( pp )  2  ICQ Rac  2  3.13 mA  ( 1 k // 1 k )  3.13V

4. CE amplifier and Design
• Why the circuit below is CE (Common Emitter) amplifier?
1. input to the amplifier is at Base

2. output of the amplifier is at Collector
VCC
io
RC
R2 vo CC
C vo
Ri iin CB
B iL
Ro
E RL
vi vin R1
Rin RE CE
3. so Emitter becomes common to both input and output and is called CE

CE amplifier analysis vo
vo
Ri iin io
iL
1. all capacitors short and RC RL

vi vin R1 R2
replace VCC with ac ground Rin Ro
RE
2. Then replace BJT with it’s

equivalent circuit, label all components
vo
C
vo
3. Calculate Av ,Ri, Ro, Ai, from the Ri iin ib io iL
B
equivalent circuit ib
vi vin RB RC RL
v  ib  RC // RL  R // RL re
Av  o   C Rin Ro
vin ib  re re E
v v
Ro  o  RC
vo vo 
 v   Rin Rin  in  RB // re io
iL RL AR iin

in 
Ai    v in
iin vin RL RL
Rin
CE amplifier design equations
(in addition to previous chapter upon dc design equations)
VCC
io
RC Circuit
R2 vo CC
C vo
Ri iin CB v R // RL Voltage gain
B iL Av  o   C
vin re
Ro
E RL
vi vin R1
Rin RE CE v
Rin  in  RB // re Input resistance
iin
v
Ro  o  RC Output resistance
io
AR v
Ai  v in where RL  o
RL iL Current gain
Example 1 CE amplifier design
Draw the (CE) amplifier circuit
Given specifications are: b = 200, VCC = 10V, design with maximum (optimum)
output voltage swing , RC= RL = 2kW, RE = 0.4kW, Ri = 0, Rin = 1.5kW
Design bias R1 and R2, find voltage gain,and undistorted output voltage swing.
VCC 10
IC    2.94 mA VCC
Rac  Rdc 1 k  2.4 k
26 26 RC
re    8.84   re  200  8.84  1768  R2
IC 2.94 vo
1768  1500
 RB // re  RB // 1768   Rin  1500   RB   9.895 k
1768  1500
RL
R vi
VBB  I B RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  RE  B    0.7 vin R1
  RE CE

 2.94 0.4 k  9.895 
200  0.7  2.02V
RB 9.895 V 9.895  10
R1    12.4 k
VBB
1  V   1  
2.02
10  R2  RB CC 
VBB 2.02
 49 k
 CC 
 RC // RL  1000
vo (pp)  2IC Rac  2  2.94mA  1k  5.88V Av    113 .12
re 8.84
Example 2
• Draw the (CE) amplifier circuit
• Given specifications are: b = 200, VCC = 10V, optimum output voltage
design, RC= RL = 2kW, RE = 0.4kW, Ri = 0.1kW
• Design bias R1 and R2 , so that Av = vo / vi > 100
• Find undistorted output voltage swing.
VCC 10
IC    2.94 mA VCC
Rac  Rdc 1 k  2.4 k
vo vo vin  RC // RL Rin  1000 Rin RC

       100 R2
vi vin vi re Rin  Ri 8.84 Rin  Ri vo
1000 R 100 100 Ri
1  i 1   Rin   757.5  to sataify Av  100
884 Rin Rin 1.132  1 vi RL
26 26 vin R1
re    8.84   re  200  8.84  1768  RE CE
IC 2.94
1768  758
 RB // re  RB // 1768   Rin  757.5   RB   1.327 k
1768  758
R
 
VBB  I B RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  RE  B    0.7  2.94 0.4 k  1.327 200  0.7  1.896V
 
RB 1.327 V 1.327  10
R1    1.637 k
VBB
1  V   1 1.896
10 R2  RB CC 
VBB 1.896
7 k
 CC 
vo (pp)  2IC Rac  2  2.94mA  1k  5.88V

5. CE with RE amplifier and Design
• Why the circuit below is CE with RE amplifier?
1. input to the amplifier is at Base

2. output of the amplifier is at Collector
VCC
io
RC
R2 vo CC
C vo
Ri iin CB
B iL
Ro
E RL
vi vin 3. RE is active as
R1
Rin RE there is no CE
4. so Emitter becomes common to both input and output with R E

active and is called CE with RE
CE with RE amplifier analysis vo
vo
Ri iin io
iL
RC RL
1. all capacitors short and vi vin R1 R2
Ro
replace VCC with ac ground Rin RE
2. Then replace BJT with it’s

equivalent circuit, label all components
vo
C
vo
3. Calculate Av ,Ri, Ro, Ai, from the Ri iin ib io iL
equivalent circuit B
ib
re
v 
 ib  RC // RL 
R // RL
vi vin RB E RC RL
Av  o   C
vin 
ib  re  RE  re  RE Rin RE Ro
vin ib re   ib RE
Rin 
iin
 RB //
ib

 RB //  re  RE 
v
Ro  o  RC
io
vo vo R
iL RL  vin  in Av Rin
Ai     
iin vin RL RL
Rin
CE with RE amplifier design equations
VCC
io
RC Circuit
R2 v o CC
C vo
Ri iin CB R // RL
B iL v Voltage gain
Av  o   C
Ro vin RE
E RL
vi vin R1
Rin RE
v

Rin  in  RB //  re  RE
iin
 Input resistance
v
Ro  o  RC Output resistance
io
AR v
RL iL Current gain
CE with RE amplifier design
Example 1
Draw the (CE with RE ) amplifier circuit. Given specifications are: b = 200, VCC =
11.17V,, optimum output voltage swing, RC= RL = 2kW, RE = 0.4kW, Ri = 0.1kW.
Design bias R1 and R2 , so that Rin = vin / iin = 10 kW
find undistorted output voltage swing and voltage gain A v = vo/vin and AvT = vo/vi
VCC 11.17 V VCC
IC    2.94 mA
Rac  Rdc 1.4 k  2.4 k io
RC
re 
26

26
 8.84  (re  RE )  200  408.84  81.76k
R2 vo CC
IC 2.94 C vo
Ri iin CB
81.76  10 B iL
 RB // (re  RE )  Rin  10k  RB   11.42k Ro
81.76  10 E RL
R vi vin R1
VBB  IBRB  0.7  IC RE  IC  RE  B    0.7
 Rin RE
 
 
 2.94 0.4k  11.42 200  0.7  2.04V
RB 11.42k
R1    13.97k V 11.42  10

1
VBB
V

 1 2.04 
11.17
R2  RB CC 
VBB 2.04
 55.98k
 CC 
vo (pp)  2IC Rac  2  2.94mA  1k  5.88V Note RB  0.1 RE is not used
as RB is to be found from Rin  10 k
 RC // RE  1k
v o / vin     2.45
re  RE 0.408
Rin 10 k
v o / vi  vo / vin    2.45    2.42
Ri  Rin 10.1 k
6. EF amplifier and Design
VCC
1. input to the amplifier 2. output of the
is at Base amplifier is at Emitter
R2
Ri iin CB
CC vo
vi vin
R1 RL
RE
iL
Rin Ro
3.Collector becomes common to both input and output and the

amplifier is Common Collector (CC) amplifier or Emitter Follower (EF)
amplifier
EF amplifier analysis
Ri iin
1. First replace VCC with ac ground and iL

vo
all capacitors short.2. Then replace vi vin R1 R2
RE RL
BJT with it’s equivalent circuit, label
all components. 3. Calculate Av ,Ri, Ro, Rin Ro
Ai, from the equivalent circuit
Ri iin ib
B C
ib
vin 
ib re   ib RE // RL  vin
RB re E
iL v
Rin   RB // vi io o
iin ib RE RL
 
 RB //  re  RE // RL  Rin Ro
v ib  RE // RL  RE // RL 

Av  o   1
vin ib   re  ( RE // RL )  re  ( RE // RL )
To find Ro all voltage sources are shorted and with it’s equivalent
circuit, calculate Ro, Ai
Ri iin ib ib
B C
+ -
ib RB ib
RB re E Ri re + E
vin iL v
vi io o io vo
+
RE RL RE
-
-
Rin Ro Ro
v vo
Ro  RE // o  RE //
io   ib
 ib   re  ( RB // Ri )   ( RB // Ri ) 
 RE //  RE // re  
 i b   
vo vo 
iL RL  v   Rin AR

in 
Ai    v in
iin vin RL RL
Rin
EF amplifier design equations
V
(in addition to previous chapter upon dc design equations) CC
R2
Ri iin CB
Circuit CC vo
vi vin
R1 RL
RE
iL
Rin Ro
Voltage gain v
Av  o  1
vin
vin
Input resistance Rin   RB // (re  RE // RL )
iin
Output resistance v  R // Ri 
Ro  RE // o  RE //  B  re 
io   
Current gain AR v
RL iL
EF amplifier design
Example 1
Draw and design EF amplifier with following specifications:
Specified RL = 100 W, b = 60, VCC = 12V
Design RE , R1 , R2 , so that Rin = 1kW. Find Ro if Ri =100W and Vo (pp)
VCC
For max power transfer , RE  RL  100 
VCC 12
IC    80 mA R2
Rac  Rdc ( 100 // 100 )  100
Ri iin CB
 re  26 mV / 80 mA  0.33 
 
Rin  1 k  RB //  re  RE // RL  vin
CC vo
vi R1
1000  3020 RL
1000   RB // 60 0.33  50   RB   1.5 k RE
3020  1000 iL
R   1.5 k  Rin Ro
VBB  0.7  IC  B  RE   0.7  80 mA   0.1 k   10.7 V
    60 
RB 1.5
V 1.5  12 R1    13.85 k
R2  RB CC 
VBB 10.7
 1.68 k 
1 
VBB 
VCC 
1 
 10.7
12

 ( RB // Ri ) 
Ro  RE // re  
  
 ( 1.5 k // 0.1 k ) 
 100 // 0.33    0.33 
 60  vo ( pp )  2 IC Rac  2  80 mA  0.05 k  8V
Example 2
Draw and design EF amplifier with following specifications:
Specified b = 60, Rin = 10kW, IC = 10mA. Design VCC , RE = RL, R1 , R2 , so that
VCC
Ai = 10, and find Ro if Ri =100W and Vo (pp)
AR 1  10 k
Ai  v in  10   RL  1 k  RE R2
RL RL Ri iin CB
re  26 mV / 10 mA  2.6  CC vo
 
Rin  10 k  RB //  re  RE // RL  vi vin
R1 RL
10 k  30.15 k RE
10 k  RB // 60 2.6  500   RB   15 k iL
30.15 k  10 k
VCC VCC Rin Ro
IC  10 mA    VCC  10 mA  1.5 k  15V
Rac  Rdc ( 1 k // 1 k )  1 k
R   15 k  V 15 k  15V
VBB  0.7  IC  B  RE   0.7  10 mA   0.5 k   8.2V R2  RB CC   27.44 k
    60  VBB 8.2V
RB 15 k  ( RB // Ri ) 
R1    33 k Ro  RE // re  

1 
VBB 
VCC 
1  
8.2V
15V    
  ( 15 k // 0.1 k ) 
 1000 // 2.6    2.6 
 60 
vo ( pp )  2 IC Rac  2  10 mA  0.5 k  10V
7. CB amplifier and Design
3.2.1 CB amplifier without CB
VCC
RC
R2 CC
2. output of the amplifier vo
is at Collector
CE Ri RL
ie
R1
RE vin vi
1. input to the amplifier Rin Ro

is at Emitter
3. Base becomes common to both input and output and the amplifier
is Common Base (CB) amplifier
7.1 CB amplifier analysis (without CB)
First replace VCC with ac ground and all vo
capacitors short.Then replace BJT with C
B
it’s equivalent circuit, label all
components. Calculate Av ,Ri, Ro, Ai, from E Ri RC RL
ie
the equivalent circuit R2 R1
RE vin vi
v  ib  RC // RL  RC // RL
Av  o  
vin  ib  RB  re   RB 
Rin Ro
  re
 
B vo
v  i  RB  re  C
Rin  RE // in  RE // b ib ib
ie  ib re
R  RB E RL
ie RC
 RE //  B  re 
   vin
RE
AR v
Ai  v in where RL  o Rin Ro
RL iL
Ro  RC
7.2 CB amplifier analysis (with CB)
VCC
vo
RC C
R2 CC B
vo
E Ri RC RL
ie
CE Ri RL vin vi
CB ie RE
R1
RE vin vi
Rin Ro
Rin Ro
B C vo
v R // RL ib
Av  o  C v R // RL ib
vin  RB  Av  o  C re
  re RB = 0 vin re
  RB=0 E RL
ie RC
R  RE vin
Rin  RE //  B  re  Rin  RE // re
   RB = 0
Rin Ro
AR v Ro  RC
RL iL
CB amplifier design equations
7.1 CB amplifier without CB 7.2 CB amplifier with CB

v R // RL R // RL
Av  o  C v
Av  o  C
Voltage gain vin  RB 
 re  vin re

 
Input resistance R  Rin  RE // re
Rin  RE //  B  re 
  
Ro  RC
Output resistance Ro  RC
AR v AR v
Ai  v in where RL  o Ai  v in where RL  o
Current gain RL iL RL iL
VCC VCC
RC RC
R2 CC R2 CC
vo vo
CE Ri RL
Circuits CE Ri RL
ie CB ie
R1 R1
RE vin vi RE vin vi
Rin Ro Rin Ro
Example 1 CB amplifier design
Draw and design CB amplifier without CB with following specifications:
RL = 2k W, b = 100, RE = 400 W, VCC = 24V
Design R1 , R2 , so that Av = 20 and find Ai , Rin and Vo (pp)
VCC
For max power transfer , RC  RL  2 k
VCC 24 RC
IC    6.3 mA R2 CC
Rac  Rdc ( 2 k // 2 k )  0.4  2.4 k vo
 re  26 mV / 6.3 mA  4.12 
R // RL CE RL
1k ie
Av  20  C  R1
 RB   RB 
  re   0. 004  RE vin
  100 
RB  0.4  5 k  RB  4.6k Rin Ro
R   4.6 k 
VBB  0.7  IC  B  RE   0.7  6.3 mA   0.4 k   3.51V
    100 
RB 4.6k
R1    5.38 k

1 
VBB
V


1 
3.51V
24V
 V
R2  RB CC 
VBB
4.6k  24V
3.51V
 31.4 k
 CC 
R  4.59 k  AR 20  44 
Rin  RE //  B  re   0.4 //   4.12   44  Ai  v in   0.44
   100  RL 2000 
vo ( pp )  2 IC Rac  2  6.3 mA  1 k  12.6V

Example 2
Draw and design CB amplifier with CB for following specifications:
RL = 2k W, b = 100, RE = 400 W, VCC = 24V
Design R1 , R2 , so that Av=200 and find Ai , Rin and Vo (pp)
VCC
R // RL 1000
Av  C  re   5
re 200
RC
For max power transfer, RC  RL  2k R2 CC
VCC 24 vo
IC  26mV / 5  5.2mA  
Rac  Rdc (2k // 2k)  RE   2k  RE 
CE
24
CB RL
RE   3k  1.615k
5.2mA R1
RE vin
RB  0.1RE  0.1  100  1.615k  16.15k (CB short RB )
R   16.15k
VBB  0.7  IC  B  RE   0.7  5.2mA

 1.615k   9.956V
Rin Ro
    100 
RB 16.15k V 1.615k  24V

R1    27.59k R2  RB CC 

1
VBB 
VCC 
1 9.956V 
24V VBB 9.956V
 3.89k

AvRin 200  5
Ai    0.5
Rin  RE // re  1615 / 5  5 RL 2000
vo (pp)  2ICRac  2  5.2mA  1k  10.4V

8. Design of RC Coupled BJT amplifiers
Cascade amplifier consists of two or more amplifiers using individual power
supply VCC for each stage. The load on the first amplifier is the input of the
second amplifier and so on.
VCC VCC
For each Cascaded amplifiers, dc design is the same as
before
I CQ 
VCC RC1 RC2 IL
Rac  Rdc Iin R21
vo1
R22
vo2
Ri
Take RB  0.1RE if no other specificat ions
R vi
VBB  I B RB  0.7  IC RE  IC  RE  B    0.7 RL
  vin1 R11 vin2 R12
V RB RE1 CE1 RE2
R2  RB CC R1 
VBB 1  VBB / VCC Vo ( pp )  2  I CQ Rac Ri2
Ro
Ri Ri2
For both Cascaded amplifiers, ac design is from the AV1 AV2
followings: AVT
Ri 2  RB 2 // re 2
v o 1  RC 1 // Ri 2 v  RC 2 v
Av 1   and Av 2  o 2  and AvT  o 2  Av 1  Av 2
v in re 1 vo 1 re 2 v in
v I A  Ri
Ri  in 1  RB // re 1 R  R Ai  L  vT
Rin o C2 Iin RL
Design Example
Draw and design a two-stage CE-CE cascade amplifier for the following specifications:
VCC = 12V, b = 200 (both), RE1= RE2= 50W, RC1= RC2 = RL =600W,, Ri2= 300W, Ai=5,000
Design the biasing resistances of the stages, R !!,R21,R12,R22
# What is the Vo(pp) of each stage?
# What is the overall voltage gain from the first stage input V in1 to the output of the
second stage Vo2 ?
# What is the input resistance R in1 of the first stage ?
# What is the maximum possible input Vin1 at the first stage?
Second CE stage design VCC VCC
Start with sec ond stage to use Ri2 RC1 RC2

12 26mV Iin
R21
vo1
R22 IL vo2
IC2   12.63mA  re2   2.1
0.65  0.3 12.63mA Ri
 re2  200  2.1  0.42k vi RL
0.3  0.42 R11 R12
Rin2  0.3k  RB2 // re2  RB2   1.05k vin1 vin2
0.42  0.3 RE1 CE1 RE2
12.63
VBB2  0.7  12.63  0.05   1.05k  1.4V
200
RB2 1.05
R12    0.93k
V
R22  RB2 CC 
VBB2
1.05  12
1. 4
 9k V
1   BB2
VCC 

 1  1.4
12


0.6k // 0.6k 0.3k vo2 (pp)  2IC2Rac2  2  12.63mA  0.3k  7.58V

Av2     150
re2 0.002k v (pp) 7580mV
vo1 (pp)  vin2 (pp)  o2   50.5mV
AV2 150
First CE stage design
12 26mV
IC1   14.12mA  re1   1.84  re1  200  1.84  0.368k
0.65  0.3 // 0.6 14.12mA
0.6k // 0.3k 0.2k
Av1     108.7  AvT   150   108.7   16304.3
re1 0.00184k
A  Rin1 16304.3  Rin1 5000  0.6

Ai  5000  vT   Rin1   184
RL 0.6k 16304.3
0.184  0.368
Rin1  0.184k  RB1 // re1  RB1   0.368k
0.368  0.184
14.12
VBB1  0.7  14.12  0.05   0.368k  1.405  0.026  1.43V
200
V 0.368  12
R21  RB1 CC   3.1k
VBB1 1.43
RB1 0.368
R11 

1
VBB1 
VCC 

1 
 1.43 
12
 0.418k

v (pp) 50.5mV
vin1 (pp)  o1   0.465mV  465V
AV1 108.7
How To Use BJT Amplifiers
• More about common-emitter amplifier
– Because the output resistance is quite large (equal to
RL||ro ≈ RL), the common-emitter amplifier is a POOR
voltage driver. That means, it is not a good idea to
use such an amplifier for loads which are smaller than
RL. This makes it not suitable to deliver current to
load.
288
• Bad idea — wrong use of common-emitter
amplifier
289
• Proper use of common-emitter amplifier
290
• How can we use the amplifier in practice?
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
• Common-emitter amplifier with emitter
follower as buffer
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
Mạch khuếch đại E chung
• Mạch mắc theo kiểu E chung

có cực E đấu trực tiếp xuống
mass hoặc đấu qua tụ xuống
mass để thoát thành phần
xoay chiều, tín hiệu đưa vào
cực B và lấy ra trên cực C,
mạch có sơ đồ như hình bên:
Rg: là điện trở gánh

Rpa: là điện trở phân áp
Mạch khuếch đại E chung
• Đặc điểm:
• Mạch CE (Common – Emitter) là mạch sử dụng nhiều
nhất trong tất cả các mạch khuếch đại sử dụng BJT.
• Mạch khuếch đại E chung thường được xác định sao
cho điện áp UCE khoảng 60 – 70% Vcc.
• Biên đọ tín hiệu ra thu được lớn hơn biên độ tín hiệu vào
nhiều lần, như vậy mạch khuếch đại về điện áp.
• Tín hiệu đầu ra ngược pha so với tín hiệu đầu vào.
Transistor mắc kiểu C chung
• Mạch mắc theo kiểu C

chung có chân C đấu vào
mass hoặc nguồn dương,
tín hiệu được đưa vào
cực B và lấy ra trên cực
E, mạch có sơ đồ như
sau:
Transistor mắc kiểu C chung
• Tính chất:
• Điện trở vào lớn, điện trở ra nhỏ. Tính này được sử
dụng để làm các mạch đệm đầu ra.
• Hệ số khuếch đại áp gần 1.
• Hệ số khuếch đại dòng lớn.
• Vì điện áp giữa output và input chỉ sai khác bởi thành
phần điện áp trên B và E, do đó mạch cho phép làm việc
với một dải rộng biên độ tín hiệu đầu vào.
Transistor mắc kiểu B chung
• Mạch mắc theo kiểu B

chung có tín hiệu đưa
vào chân E và lấy ra trên
chân C.
Mạch ít khi được sử dụng
trong thực tế.
Common-Base (C-B) Stage

313
314
315

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BJT Basics

• Fundamentals: definition, structure,

In communication system, transistor is used as the primary

The planer construction of BJT: 0.150 inches

Base Region (B)

Some transistors have their

Construction Circuit symbol Construction Circuit symbol

Depletion layer B Depletion layer

npn transistor pnp transistor

 The collector current IC flows

 Both αDC and βDC have no dimension.

 αDC  1 with high value of βDC.

 If αDC  1, IC  IE, Example:

• The collector current IC is directly proportional to the base

• The amount of collector current IC flowing into the transistor

 For all practical purposes, the base-emitter bias voltage VBE is

IB=10A 0.704 0.706 0.708 0.708

IB=20A 0.729 0.733 0.735 0.738

IB=30A 0.746 0.753 0.756 0.757

0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

 The input current IB remains almost negligible for input voltage

 The base current IB starts to increase when the base-emitter

 The base current IB increases rapidly (linearly) after the base-

 The characteristic curve is also slightly dependent on the

IB=2A 0.291 0.299 0.306 0.307

IB=10A 1.316 1.328 1.339 1.352

IB=20A 2.51 2.52 2.59 2.65

IB=30A 3.71 3.74 3.85 3.95

 When IB goes beyond this value, 3 Active region

 The region under the IB = 0 line, is 1

 In the saturation region, VCE(sat) < 0.5/0.3 volts.

For an npn transistor;

IC = βDC IB at a constant VCE value.

In cut-off region, IB = 0, IC  0 except for the collector to emitter leakage current.

IC (mA) VCE=6V IC (mA)

Base-Emitter junction Base-Collector Operating region

VBE>0 and VBC>0

(1) BJT AS A SWITCH

BJT rating: VBE = 0.7 V, I

Q1 VBE=0.7V VCE=1.2V Transistor Q2:

Step 3: Find VCE from output circuit:

 Transistors should operate

and calculate the corresponding IC as 10 Safe operating region VCE(max) =50V

 When the temperature increases, the collector current I C increases due to an

 If a transistor cannot dissipate enough heat (or has high thermal

 The analysis of BJT as amplifier is studied. They are divided

1. BJT biasing circuits

are made to vary around

• To place it in operation in the region of its characteristic

Output voltage limited by cutoff: vout (v)

Output voltage limited by saturation:

DC bias circuit of CE amplifier

It is the current gain feature that enables BJTs to be used for

 Applying KVL around the input circuit, we obtain the Biasing

 IC = βDC IB --- Transistor operates in the active region

VCE = VCC – (RC + RE) IC This is the transistor collector-emitter voltage.

 The operating point (Q point) of the transistor is at (V CE, IC).

 Occasionally, a subscript Q is added to the

 The Q-point (quiescent-point) specifies the dc output current IC and

The Q-point of the transistor

Find VB, VC, VE of the following Step 1: find IB

1. BJT biasing circuit

Forward bias VBE= VCC -IB RB