Chapter Two

Gas-Vapor Mixtures
Engineering Thermodynamics II
[MEng 3131 ]
1
Outline
• Dry and Atmospheric Air
• Specific and Relative Humidity of Air
• Dew-point Temperature
• Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-bulb Temperature
• The Psychrometric Chart
• The Psychrometric Processes
• Cooling Tower
2
 Dry and Atmospheric Air
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of some other gases.
The air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and
is referred to as atmospheric air(moist air).
Air that contains no water vapor is called dry air.
 The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges from about -100C
to about 500C.
 In this range, the dry air can be treated as an ideal gas with a constant Cp value
of 1.005 kJ/kg K with negligible error.

3
 Dry and Atmospheric Air
 Taking 00C as the reference temperature, the enthalpy and enthalpy
change of dry air can be determined from

hdry air  C pT  [1.005 kJ/(kg  C)]T


hdry air  C p T  [1.005 kJ/(kg  C)]T

where T is the air temp. in oC and the delta T

is the change in temp.

4
Would it not be convenient
to also treat the water
vapor in the air as an ideal
gas?

 @ 500C Psat=12.3kPa
 from fig.for P< Psat
water vapor can be treated as an
ideal gas
5
 Atmospheric Air
 the atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture
whose pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air,
Pa, and that of the water vapor, Pv:

P  Pa  Pv

 the subscript a- dry air and

v- water vapor
6
 Since water vapor is an ideal gas, the enthalpy of water vapor is a function of
temperature only, h=h(T)
the enthalpy of water vapor in air can be taken to be equal to the enthalpy of the
saturated vapor at the same temperature

hv (T , low P)  hg (T )

7
 Enthalpy of water vapor at 00C is 2500.9 kJ/kg.
 Average Cp value of water vapor in the temperature range -
10 to 500C can be taken to be 1.82 kJ/kg0C.
 The enthalpy of water vapor can be determined
approximately from


hg (T )  2500.9  1.82T (kJ/kg) T in C

8
 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air
 the amount of water vapor in the air can be specified in various ways.
 the most logical way is to specify directly the mass of water vapor present in a unit
mass of dry air. This is called absolute or specific humidity (humidity ratio) and is
denoted by  :
mv
 (kg water vapor/kg dry air)
ma
The specific humidity can also be expressed as
mv PvV ( RV T ) Pv RV Pv
    0.622
ma PaV ( RaT ) Pa Ra Pa  P- total pressure
 Ra=0.287 kJ/kg K
0.622 Pv
 (kg water vapor/kg dry air)  Rv= 0.4616 KJ/kg K
P  Pv
CONSIDER 1 KG OF DRY AIR NO WATER VAPOR  0
 add some water vapor 
 as more vapor or moisture is
added  until the air hold no more
moisture


 air is said to be saturated with moisture, and is
called saturated air.
 amount of water vapor in saturated air at T and P
can be determined by Equation above by
replacing Pv by Pg, the saturation pressure of
water at that temperature.0.622 Pg
 (kg water vapor/kg dry air)
P  Pg
10
The amount of moisture in the air has a definite effect on how
comfortable we feel in an environment. however, the comfort level
depends more on the amount of moisture the air holds (mv) relative to
the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same
temperature(mg).
The ratio of these two quantities is called the relative humidity 

mv PvV /( RvT ) Pv
   where Pg  Psat @ T
mg PgV /( Rg T ) Pg

Combining Equations of specific and relative humidity, the relative humidity can also be
expressed as
P 0.622Pg
 and  
(0.622   ) Pg P  Pg 11
 Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and thus the enthalpy of air is
expressed in terms of the enthalpies of the dry air and the water vapor.
 In most practical applications, the amount of dry air in the air-water-vapor mixture
remains constant, but the amount of water vapor changes.
 The enthalpy of atmospheric air is expressed per unit mass of dry air instead of per unit
mass of the air-water-vapor mixture.
 The total enthalpy (an extensive property) of atmospheric air is the sum of the
enthalpies of the dry air and the water vapor:
H  H a  H v  ma ha  mv hv
H mv
h  ha  hv  ha  hv
ma ma
h  ha  hg (kJ/kg dry air) [since hv  hg ]
 the ordinary temperature of atmospheric air is frequently referred to as the 12

dry- bulb temperature to differentiate it from other forms of temperatures.

Example 2.1.
A tank contains air at 21 kg of dry air and 0.3 kg of water vapor at 30 0C
and 100 kPa total pressure. Determine,
(a) the specific humidity
(b) the relative humidity, and  P- total pressure
 Ra=0.287 kJ/kg K
(c) the volume of the tank
 Rv= 0.4616 kJ/kg K

Example 2.2.
A room contains air at 20 0C and 98 kPa at a relative humidity of 85 percent.
Determine,
(a) the partial pressure of dry air,
(b) the specific humidity of air , and
13
(c) the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air.
 Dew-point Temperature

• The dew-point temperature Tdp is

defined as the temperature at
which condensation begins when
the air is cooled at constant
pressure.
• In other words, Tdp is the
saturation temperature of water
corresponding to the vapor
pressure:
Td p  Tsa t@ Pv
14
 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-bulb Temperature

 Another way of determining the relative humidity

is related to an adiabatic saturation process.
 The system consists of a long insulated channel
that contains a pool of water.
 A steady stream of unsaturated air that has a
specific humidity of 1 (unknown) and a
temperature of T1 is passed through this channel.
 As the air flows over the water, some water will
evaporate and mix with the airstream.
 The moisture content of air will increase during
this process, and its temperature will decrease,
since part of the latent heat of vaporization of the
water that evaporates will come from the air.
15
If the channel is long enough, the airstream will exit as saturated air (100
% relative humidity) at temperature T2, which is called the adiabatic
saturation temperature.
If makeup water is supplied to the channel at the rate of evaporation at
temperature T2 , the adiabatic saturation process described above can be
analyzed as a steady-flow process.   
   m w1  m f  m w2
m a1  m a2  m a (The mass flow rate of vapor in the air increases
(The mass flow rate of 
by an amount equal to the rate of evaporation m f )
dry air remains constant)  
Thus, m f  m a (2  1 )
16
  

Energy balance : m h  m h
i
i
e
e

  

m a1 h1  m f h f2  m a2 h2
  

or m a1 h1  m a (2  1 )h f2  m a h2


Dividing by m a gives h1  (2  1 )h f2  h2

or (C pT1  1hg 1 )  (2  1 )h f2  (C pT2  2 hg 2 )

the specific humidity (and relative
humidity ) of air can be determined
1 
C p (T2  T1 )  2 h fg2 from the two equations. By
hg 1  h f2 measuring the pressure and
temperature of the air at the inlet
0.622 Pg 2 and the exit of an adiabatic
2  saturator.
P2  Pg2
17
 Wet-bulb Temperature, Twb
 The adiabatic saturation process discussed
above provides a means of determining the
absolute or relative humidity of air, but it
requires a long channel or a spray mechanism to
achieve saturation conditions at the exit.
 A more practical approach is to use a
thermometer whose bulb is covered with a
cotton wick saturated with water and to blow air
over the wick, as shown.
 The temperature measured in this manner is
called the wet-bulb temperature Twb, and it is
commonly used in air-conditioning applications.
18
Example 2.3.
The dry- and wet-bulb temperatures of atmospheric air at 95kPa are
25oC and 17oC, respectively. Determine,
(a) the specific humidity
(b) the relative humidity
(c) the enthalpy of the air, in kJ/kg dry air.

19
 The Psychrometric Chart
 The state of the atmospheric air at a
specified pressure is completely specified
by two independent intensive properties.
 The rest of the properties can be calculated
easily from the relations above.
 The sizing of a typical air-conditioning
system involves numerous such
calculations.
 Therefore, there is clear motivation to do
these calculations once and to present the
data in the form easily readable charts.
Such charts are called psychrometric
charts. 20
 The Psychrometric Chart

 “Psychrometery” – the art of

measuring the moisture content of
air
 “Psychrometrics”- the science
which investigates the thermal
properties of moist air, considers
the measurement and control of
the moisture content of air , and
studies the effect of atmospheric
moisture on material and human
comfort.
21
22
  On the left end of the chart, there is a
curve (called the saturation line)
instead of a straight-line.
 All the saturated air states are located
on this curve.
 It is also the curve of 100% relative
humidity.
 For saturated air, the dry-bulb, wet-
bulb, and dew-point temperatures are
identical.
The psychrometic chart also serves as a valuable
aid in visualizing the air-conditioning processes. 23
 Example 2.5.1.
The air in a room is at 1 atm, 32 0C, and 60 percent relative humidity.
Determine
(a) the specific humidity
(b) the enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air),
(c) the wet-bulb temperature,
(d) the dew-point temperature, and
(e) the specific volume of the air (in m3/kg dry air)
Use the psychrometeric chart!

24
Example 2.5.1.

25
 Example 2.5.2.
A room contains air at 1 atm, 26 0C, and 70 percent relative humidity.
Using the psychrometeric chart determine
(a) the specific humidity
(b) the enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air),
(c) the wet-bulb temperature,
(d) the dew-point temperature, and
(e) the specific volume of the air (in m3/kg dry air)

26
 Example 2.5.3.

The air in a room has a pressure of 1 atm, a dry-bulb temperature of

24oC, and a wet-bulb temperature of 17oC. Using the psychrometric
chart, determine
(a) the specific humidity
(b) the enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air),
(c) the relative humidity,
(d) the dew-point temperature, and
(e) the specific volume of the air (in m3/kg dry air)

27
 The Psychrometric Processes
Air conditioning for human comfort or industrial
processes requires certain processes to be carried
out on air to vary its psychrometric properties to the
requirements:
 Mixing of air streams,
 Sensible heating or/and cooling of air,
 Humidification of air,
 Dehumidification of air, and combinations of
theses processes.
28
 Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at
the desired temperature and humidity requires some
processes called air-conditioning processes.
 These processes include
 Simple heating (raising the temperature )
 Simple cooling (lowering the temperature)
 Humidifying (adding moisture), and
 De-humidifying (removing moisture)

29
Most air-conditioning processes can be modeled as steady-flow
processes, and thus the mass balance relation min=mout can be expressed
for dry air and water as
 
Mass balance for dry air :  m  m
a ,i a ,e
   
Mass balance for water :  m  m
w ,i w, e or  ma ,ii   ma ,ee

Disregarding the kinetic and potential energy changes, the steady –flow
energy balance relation Ein=Eout can be expressed in this case as
     

Qin  W in   m i hi  Qout  W ou t   m e he
30
 Mixing of air streams
 Many air-conditioning applications require
the mixing of two airstreams-the
conditioned air be mixed with a certain
fraction of fresh outside air.
 The heat transfer with the surroundings is
usually small, and thus the mixing processes
can be assumed to be adiabatic.
Figure to the right: When two airstreams at state 1 and 2 are
mixed adiabatically, the state of the mixture lies on the
straight line connecting the two states.
31
Mixing processes normally involve no work interactions,
and the changes in kinetic and potential energies, if any, 

are negligible. Then , the mass and energy balances for m a1 2  3

   states
the
the adiabatic mixing of two air streams reduce to m a2

3  1
that satisfy this condition are indicated by
   the dashed line AB.
Mass of dry air : m a1  m a2  m a3 

   m a1 h2  h3
Mass of water vapor : 1 m a  2 m a  3 m a   
m a2 h3  h1
1 2 3  the states
  
Energy : m a1 h1  m a2 h2  m a3 h3 that satisfy this condition are indicated by
E lim inating ma3 from the relations above : the dashed line CD.


 The only state that satisfies both
m a1 h h

 2 3 conditions is the intersection point of
m a2 h3  h1 these two dashed lines, which is
located on the straight line connecting
states 1 and 2.
32
Conclusion:
•When two airstreams at two different states (state 1 and 2) are
mixed adiabatically, the state of the mixture (state 3) will lie on the
straight line connecting states 1 and 2 on the psychrometric chart,
and
•the ratio of the distances 2-3 and 3-1 is equal to the ratio of mass
flow rates

 
m a1 and m a2 .

33
 Example 2.6.1
Two airstreams are mixed steadily and adiabatically. The first stream
enters at 350C and 30 percent relative humidity at a rate of 15 m 3/min,
while the second stream enters at 12 0C and 90 percent relative
humidity at a rate of 25 m3/min. Assuming that mixing process occurs
at a pressure of 1 atm, determine the,
(a) specific humidity,
(b) relative humidity,
(c) dry-bulb temperature, and
(d) volume flow rate of the mixture.
34
 Sensible Heating and Cooling Processes
 Many residential heating systems consist of a stove, a heat
pump, or an electric resistance heater.
 The air in these systems is heated by circulating it through a
duct that contains the tubing for the hot gases or the electric
resistance wires.
 The amount of moisture in the air remains constant during
this processes since no moisture is added to or removed
from the air.
 The specific humidity of the air remains constant during a
heating or (or cooling) process with no humidification or
dehumidification.
 Such a heating process/cooling process [constant specific
humidity] appears on a psychrometric chart as a horizontal
line. 35
The conservation of mass equations for a heating or cooling
process that involves no humidification or dehumidification reduce
to:   

m a1  m a2  ma

Neglecting any fan work that may be present,

the conservati on of energy equation in this case reduces to
 
Q  m a (h2  h1 ) or q  h2  h1
where h1 and h2 are enthalpies per unit mass of dry
air at the inlet and the exit of the heating or cooling sec tion .
36
 Example 2.6.2.

Air enters a 40 cm-diameter cooling section at 1 atm, 35oC, and

45 percent relative humidity at 18 m/s. Heat is removed from
the air at a rate of 750 kJ/min. Determine,
(a)The exit temperature,
(b) the exit relative humidity of the air, and
(c) the exit velocity.

37
 Heating with Humidification
 Problems associated with the low relative humidity
resulting from simple heating can be eliminated by
humidifying the heated air.
 This is accomplished by passing the air first through
a heating section (process 1-2) and then through a
humidifying section (process 2-3), as shown.
 State 3 depends on how the humidification is
accomplished.
 If steam is introduced in the humidification section,
this will result in humidification with additional  If humidification is accomplished by
heating (T3>T2). spraying water into the airstream
instead, part of the latent heat of
 The addition of moisture to the air, without change vaporization will come from the air,
in its dry bulb temperature, is known as which will result in the cooling of the
humidification. heated air stream (T3<T2).
38
 Example 2.6.3.
An air-conditioning system operates at a total pressure of 1 atm and consists of a
heating section and a humidifier that supplies wet steam (saturated water vapor) at
100oC. Air enters the heating section at 10oC and 70 percent relative humidity at a
rate of 35 m3/min, and it leaves the humidifying section at 20 oC and 60 percent
relative humidity. Determine,
(a) the temperature and relative humidity of air when it leaves the heating section,
(b) the rate of heat transfer in the heating section, and
(c) the rate at which water is added to the air in the humidifying section.

39
 Cooling with Dehumidification

 The specific humidity of air remains constant

during a simple cooling process, but its relative
humidity increases.
 If the relative humidity reaches undesirably
high levels, it may be necessary to remove
some moisture from the air , that is, to
dehumidify it.
 This requires cooling the air below its dew-
point temperature.
 Dehumidification - removal of moisture from
the air without change in its dry bulb
temperature.
40
Example 2.6.4.
Air enters a 30-cm-diameter cooling section at 1 atm, 35 0C, and 60 percent
relative humidity at 120 m/min. The air is cooled by passing it over a cooling coil
through which cold water flows. The water experiences a temperature rise of 8 0C.
The air leaves the cooling section saturated at 20 0C. Determine,
(a) the rate of heat transfer,
(b) the mass flow rate of the water, and
(c) the exit velocity of the airstreams.

41
Cooling Towers
 Cooling Towers provide an alternative in
locations where sufficient cooling water
cannot be obtained from natural
sources or where concerns for the
environment place a limit on the
temperature at which cooling water can
be returned to the surroundings.
 Cooling towers can operate by natural
or forced convection. Also they may be
counter flow, cross-flow, or a
combination of these.

42
 Cooling Tower (Cont…)

 The warm water to be cooled enters at 1 m1  m2

and is sprayed from the top of the tower.
 The falling water usually passes through a
series of baffles intended to keep it broken
up into fine drops to promote evaporation.
 Atmospheric air drawn in at 3 by the fan
flows upward, counter to the direction of
the falling water droplets.
 As the two streams interact, a small
fraction of the water stream evaporates
into the moist air, while exits at 4 with a Figure: Schematic of a cooling
greater humidity ratio than the incoming tower
moist air at 3.
43
 Cooling Tower (Cont…)
 The energy required for evaporation is provided mainly by the portion of
the incoming water stream that does not evaporate, with the result that
the water exiting at 2 is at a lower temperature than the water entering
at 1.
 Since some of the incoming water is evaporated into the moist
airstream, an equivalent amount of makeup water is added at 5 so that
the return mass flow rate of the cool water equals the mass flow rate of
the warm water entering at 1.
Assume
hwater vapor  hsaturatedvapor
hliquid stream  hsaturatedliquid
44
 Cooling Tower (Cont…)
Neglecting heat transfer to the surroundin g :
Mass balance
 
(dry air) : m a3  m a 4
    
(water) : m1  m 5  m v 3  m 2  m v 4

Denoting common mass flow rate of the dry air as m a
    
Since m1  m 2  m 5  m v 4  m v 3
 
m 5  m a (4  3 )
   
[m v 3  3 m a and m v 4  4 m a ]
45
 Cooling Tower (Cont…)
Energy Balance :
      
0  m1 hw1  (m a ha 3  m v 3 hv 3 )  m5 hw5  m 2 h2  (m a ha 4  mv 4 hv 4 )
Evaluating enthalpies of water vapor as the saturated vapor values, and
enthalpy of each liquid stream as the saturated liquid enthalpy,
      
0  m1 h f 1  (m a ha 3  m v3 hg 3 )  m5 h f 5  m 2 h f 2  (m a ha 4  m v 4 hg 4 )

       
Introducing , m1  m 2 ,  m a (4  3 ), m v 3  3 m a , and m v 4  4 m a and solving for m a
m5
m1 (h f 1  h f 2 )
ma 
ha 4  ha 3  4 hg 4  3hg 3  (4  3 )h f 5
or
m1 (h f 1  h f 2 )
ma 
(ha 4  4 hg 4 )  (3hg 3  ha 3 )  (4  3 )h f 5 46
 Example 2.7
A wet cooling water is to cool 60 kg/s of water from 40 to 26oC.
Atmospheric air enters the tower at 1 atm with dry-and wet-bulb
temperatures of 22 and 16oC, respectively, and leaves at 34oC with a
relative humidity of 90 percent. Using the psychrometric chart,
determine
(a) the volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower and
(b) the mass flow rate of the required makeup water.

47