De La Salle University

Mechanical Engineering Department

Module No. 5

Calibration of Liquid Flowmeters

NAME : Nygel Gian Santillan

SUBJECT & SECTION : LBYME3B EE3

INSTRUCTOR : Engr. Isidro Antonio Marfori

RATING: _________

REMARKS: ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

1
Objectives

• To calibrate the following flowmeters such as sharp-edged orifice, Venturi meter and
Weirs or notches
• To compare the experimentally determined coefficients of discharge with the generally
accepted value.

Materials and Equipment

• Small sharp-edged circular orifice

• Notches or weirs
• Venturi tube

Experiment Set-up

Figure 5.1 shows the materials and equipment set-up forCalibration of Liquid Flowmeters.

FIGURE 5.1Calibration of Liquid Flowmeters Test Set-up

2
Theory

Discharge through a Small Sharp Edged Circular Orifice

FIGURE 5.2Small Sharp Edged Circular Orifice

Figure 5.2 shows a small sharp-edged circular orifice of diameter (d) set in the vertical side of a large
tank discharging water under a head (H). Applying Bernoulli’s concept from the free surface of water
in the tank and to the orifice considering that head losses are neglected then, the equation can be
written as

Since the tank is exposed to atmosphere and the elevation head upstream is maintained then the
pressure and velocity heads are zero, respectively. If the discharged fluid is also exposed to
atmosphere and the centreline becomes the reference line then both parameters are zero as well.
Hence, the equation reduced to

3
where, 𝑉𝑡 denotes the theoretical velocity and the theoretical volume flow rate, 𝑄𝑡 can also be
determined

Q = AV,

Now, the actual volume flow rate at vena-contracta is given by

where,𝑑𝑗 and 𝑣𝑗refer to respective diameter and velocity of jet at vena-contracta. The ratio of jet area
at vena-contracta and area of the orifice is commonly known as the “contraction coefficient” denoted
as 𝐶𝑐.

Similarly the ratio of jet velocity at vena contracta to the theoretical velocity of orifice is termed the
“velocity coefficient” denoted by 𝐶𝑣.

It follows that the velocity of jet at vena-contracta yields

𝑣𝑗 = 𝐶𝑉√2𝑔𝐻 (5.8)

Hence, the actual volume flowrate is

Finally, the product of velocity and contraction coefficients is known as the discharge coefficient
denoted as 𝐶𝑑, which is a function of Reynolds number. The coefficient of discharge for small
sharpedged orifices tends to be constant particularly at high Reynolds number.

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣 = ∅(𝑅𝑒) (5.10)

4
In practice, all metering devices need to be calibrated before use to determine the orifice coefficients.

Discharge over Notch or Weirs

FIGURE 5.3 Triangular Notch

Triangular Notch

The elemental volume flow rate can be determined by considering the flow through an elemental
strip of breadth (b) and thickness (dh) under a head (h) as shown in the figure above. Treating the
elemental strip as a small sharp-edged orifice then, the elemental volume flow rate can be expressed
as

𝑑𝑄 , (5.11)
and the width can be expressed as a function of weir opening angle, θ.

𝑏 = 2(𝐻 − ℎ) tan 𝜃 (5.12)

2

Also,
𝑑𝑄 (5.13)
𝑄𝑡
∫0 𝑑𝑄 (5.14)
Hence, the theoretical volume flow rate yields

(5.15)
𝑄𝑡 𝐻5/2

The actual volume flow rate denoted as QA is given by

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶𝑑𝑄𝑡 (5.16)

5
 𝑄𝐴 (5.17)

As in the case of orifice and Venturi meter, it was found that there will be a small variation of
discharge coefficient over a wide range of Reynolds number when it is plotted in a Cartesian
coordinate system. But, when the Reynolds number becomes small i.e., at low heads, the discharge
coefficient begins to change drastically with a positive slope. The actual flow rate can be expressed
as

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐾1𝐻𝑛 (5.18)

where

𝐾1 (5.19)

and the average value of exponential index 𝑛 for a well-formed notch is 2.48.

Rectangular Notch

The form of the function of B/H may be determined by considering the flow through an elemental
strip of breadth B and thickness dh, under a head h as shown in Fig.5.4 treating the elemental strip
as a small sharp-edged orifice.

FIGURE 5.4Rectangular Notch

𝑑𝑄 = 𝐵𝑑ℎ (2𝑔ℎ)1/2 (5.20)

Integrating Eq. 5.20 yields

𝑄𝑡 (5.21)

6
The actual volume flow rate is computed using

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶𝑑𝑄𝑡 (5.23)

𝑄𝐴 𝐻3/2 (5.24)

The above equation may be reduced to

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐾1𝐻𝑛 (5.25)

in which for a well-formed notch, the average exponential index denoted as 𝑛 is 1.48 where K1 is a
constant.

Discharge Through a Venturi Tube

The energy equation of steady motion along a streamline for an ideal fluid can be derived by
evaluating the forces acting on the fluid element in the direction of the streamline. Using Newton’s
2nd Law, the fluid element that tends to accelerate due to pressure and body forces will be in
equilibrium. The equation can be expressed as

𝑝𝑑𝐴 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝)𝑑𝐴 − 𝛾𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 cos𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠(𝑉𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑠) (5.26)

where, the right-hand side of Eq. 5.26 represents the inertia force. Dividing the above equation by
𝛾𝑑𝐴 reduced to

Integrating both sides of Eq. 5.27 yields the total head which is the sum of pressure, elevation and
velocity heads as shown below

It is commonly known as the Bernoulli’s equation.

7
 FIGURE 5.5Flow of Fluid in a Pipe

Figure 5.5 represents an ideal fluid flowing through a system. For incompressible fluids, the steady
state and ideal energy equation for dimensional flow where friction losses are neglected may be
written as

Venturi Tube
The Venturi tube is used to determine the volume flow rate. It demonstrates the combined equations
of Bernoulli’s Principle, continuity equation and manometer equation. Consider a fluid flowing
through the Venturi meter in which the system is the control volume. Satisfying mass conservation
at the control surfaces where the fluid enters or leaves the control volume gives

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝐴2𝑉2

8
 FIGURE 5.6Venturi Tube

Using Bernoulli’s concept derived from Eq. 5.29 and by neglecting the elevation heads, the ideal
energy equation reduced to

Combining Bernoulli’s and continuity equations but eliminating the velocities yields

However, the manometer equation can be derived using the fluid static concept in incompressible
fluid given by

𝑝1 + 𝛾(𝑦 + ℎ) − 𝛾𝑚ℎ − 𝛾𝑦 = 𝑝2

where, 𝛾𝑚 and 𝛾 are the weight densities of manometer and working fluids, respectively. Rearranging
and dividing the above equation by 𝛾 gives

Combining Eq. 5.32 and Eq. 5.33, eliminating the pressure head difference shows the volume flow
rate for incompressible fluid as a function of gravity, specific weights of manometer and working
fluids, manometer head, throat and pipe diameters.

𝑄𝑡 (5.34)

If the discharge coefficient is known then, the actual volume flow rate can be determined by the
formula as shown below.

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶𝑑𝑄𝑡

9
 𝑄𝐴 (5.35)

If the working substance is a compressible fluid such as air flowing in a horizontal Venturi tube then,
the manometer equation is given by

𝑝1 − 𝛾𝑚ℎ = 𝑝2 (5.36)

Dividing the above equation by 𝛾 and rearranging

Combining Eq. 5.32 and Eq. 5.37, eliminating the pressure head difference shows the volume flow
rate for compressible fluid as a function of gravity, specific weights of manometer and working
fluids, manometer head, throat and pipe diameters.

𝑄𝑡 (5.38)

Knowing the discharge coefficient then the actual volume flow rate can be determined.

𝑄𝐴 (5.39)

In a Venturi tube small losses occur due to viscous shear and friction effects thereby reducing the
theoretical flow through the device. With a discharge coefficient the volume flow rate can be
corrected. Hence, a calibration curve for a particular Venturi tube will show curves of theoretical
discharge predicted by the equation, and actual discharge determined by volumetric measurement.

Procedure

Discharge through a Small Sharp Edged Circular Orifice

1. Install the orifice to be tested and set a constant head in the header tank to a maximum level.
2. Adjust the flow in a tank to maintain constant head and allow ample time for the flow to settle
before reading the head.
3. Measure the time required to collect a known volume of water in the measuring tank.
4. Plot the trajectory of jet stream using the jet trajectory measuring device installed in the set-up.
5. Lower and regulate the head at desired position and repeat the procedure for a range of values
of head in the tank.
6. Plot log 𝑄𝐴 vs. log 𝐻 and determine 𝑛and 𝐾. Find the average value of 𝐶𝑑.
7. Plot 𝐶𝑑 vs. log 𝑅𝑒 where 𝑅𝑒 is the Reynolds number.

10
8. Compare the error between the mean values of 𝐶𝑑 obtained from log 𝑄𝐴 vs. log 𝐻 with that
obtained volumetrically.

Discharge over Sharp-Edged Notches

1. Admit water to the channel where the sharp-edged notch is present and allow ample time for the
flow to settle.
2. Maintain steady flow and measure the head over the sill of notch using the hook and point gauge
in the stilling well provided.
3. Measure the flow at this head by timing the discharge flow into the measuring tank.
4. Repeat the procedure for increments of head at the notch.
5. Plot log 𝑄𝐴 vs. log 𝐻 and determine 𝑛 and 𝐾1 for the notch.
6. Plot 𝐻 vs. log 𝑅𝑒.
7. Determine the effects of Reynolds number on the general form of the law of flow defined as
𝑄𝐴 = 𝐾1𝐻𝑛

Discharge through a Venturi Tube

1. Set constant head device in the header tank to the maximum level.
2. Regulate the flow of water passing through the venture tube by adjusting the throttle valve so
that both piezometer will give the maximum differential pressure.
3. Allow time for flow to settle.
4. Measure flow by timing the flow into the volumetric measuring tank.
5. Repeat procedure for increments of differential pressure as indicated by the piezometers.
6. Determine the value of coefficient of discharge Cd for each run.
7. Prepare a calibration curve for this venture tube showing curves of theoretical discharge as
predicted by equation and actual discharge as determined by volumetric measurement
(differential Head, H or ordinates and Flow, on abscissa).

11
 Experimental Data

TEST (1) DISCHARGE THROUGH A SMALL SHARP-EDGED CIRCULAR ORIFICE:

Orifice Diameter= 1.00 cm Volumetric Tank Area= 1376 cm 2 Depth= 5 cm

TABLE 5.1 Test Data of Discharge through a Small Sharp Edged Circular Orifice
Jet Coordinates
Run H, Vt, Log
V, m3 t, s Qa, m3/s Qt, m3/s Cd Re Cv Cc
No. m m/s Re
X, cm Y, cm

1 0.9 0.00688 32.07 0.0002146 4.20 0.0003300 0.650 29863.18 4.475 77.50 -32.80 0.713 0.912

2 0.8 0.00688 34.14 0.0002015 3.96 0.0003111 0.648 28283.92 4.452 73.63 -33.00 0.716 0.904

3 0.7 0.00688 37.25 0.0001847 3.71 0.0002910 0.635 25539.91 4.407 65.88 -32.40 0.692 0.918

TEST (2) DISCHARGE OVER SHARP-EDGED NOTCHED:

Area of Volumetric Tank = 1376 cm2

TABLE 5.2Test Data of Discharge over Sharp-Edged Notch

Depth
Measuring
Run Tank Log
H,m T, s Qa, m3/s Qt, m3/s Cd Log Qa Log H Re
No. Re
(D2 - D1 ), m

1 0.9 0.0231 18.87 0.0001684 0.0001755 0.960 -3.774 -0.0458 14595.21 4.164

2 0.8 0.0308 12.29 0.0003448 0.0003603 0.957 -3.462 -0.0969 20882.84 4.320

3 0.7 0.0406 10.25 0.0005450 0.0007189 0.758 -3.264 -0.1549 26253.75 4.419

Sample Computations (For Run 2)

Small Sharp Edged Circular Orifice

Actual Volumetric Flow Rate

𝑉
𝑄 =
𝑡

0.00688 𝑚 𝑚
𝑄 = = 0.0002015
34.14 𝑠 𝑠
12
Theoretical Velocity

𝑉 = 2𝑔𝐻

m 𝑚
𝑉 = 2(9.81 )(0.8 𝑚) = 3.96
s 𝑠

Theoretical Volumetric Flow Rate

𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑑 2𝑔𝐻
4

𝜋 m 𝑚
𝑄 = (0.01 𝑚) 2(9.81 )(0.8 𝑚) = 0.0003111
4 s 𝑠

Discharge Coefficient

𝑄
𝐶 =𝜋
𝑑 2𝑔𝐻
4

𝑚
0.0002015
𝐶 = 𝑠 = 0.648
𝑚
0.0003111
𝑠

Reynolds Number

𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑥
𝑑
−2𝑦
𝑔
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

0.7363 𝑚
(0.01 𝑚)
−2(−0.3300 𝑚)
m
9.81
s
𝑅𝑒 = = 28273.76367
𝑚
1.004 × 10
𝑠

Velocity Coefficient
𝑣
𝐶 =
𝑉

13
 0.7363 𝑚
−2(−0.3300 𝑚)
m
9.81
s
𝐶 = = 0.7165109657
m
2(9.81 )(0.8 𝑚)
s

Contraction Coefficient

𝐶
𝐶 =
𝐶

0.6476502613
𝐶 = = 0.904
0.7165109657

Sharp-Edged Notch
Actual Volumetric Flow Rate

𝑉 𝐴(𝑑 − 𝑑 )
𝑄 = =
𝑡 𝑡

(0.1376 𝑚 )(0.0308 m) 𝑚
𝑄 = = 0.0003448
12.29 𝑠 𝑠

Theoretical Volumetric Flow Rate

8 𝜃
𝑄 = 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻
15 2

8 m 90 𝑚
𝑄 = 2(9.81 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (0.0308 𝑚) = 0.0003933
15 s 2 𝑠

Discharge Coefficient

𝑄
𝐶 =
𝑄

𝑚
0.0003448
𝐶 = 𝑠 = 0.8766844648
𝑚
0.0003933
𝑠

14
Results and Analysis

log Q A vs log H
-3.66
-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
-3.67

-3.68

-3.69
LOG QA

-3.7
y = 0.5983x - 3.6399
R² = 0.9968 -3.71

-3.72

-3.73

-3.74
LOG H

The graph above shows the relationship between variables log Q A and log H. As can be seen
in the graph, there is a positive linear relationship between these variables. Also seen in the graph is
the trendline generated through linear regression in Microsoft Excel. The trendline equation is found
to be y = 0.5983x – 3.6399. This equation will be the basis of finding an equation for Q A, otherwise
known as actual flow rate.
Actual flow rate is commonly defined as the formula Q = K H . In this formula, QA is the
actual flow rate, H is the height of the head, and n is the exponential index. The exponential index
usually varies depending on what type of constriction fluid passes through.
The trendline generated using the Excel file is in the form of y = mx + b. Knowing what
variables are on the x and y for the graph, the general form of the equation can be converted into log
QA = n log H + log K1. From this equation alone, n can already be derived as it is clearly seen on the
trendline equation as n = 0.5983. Getting K1 is not as straightforward and involves the application of
some logarithmic rules:
log K = -3.6399
However according to logarithmic rules, this can be rewritten as:
K = 10- .
= 0.0002291395205
Which gives means that the formula for QA is:
.
Q = 0.0002291395205H
With QA now being known, Cd can then be found by isolating it from another formula for QA.
The previous formula for QA, will also be used in trying to derive a formula for Cd which is as follows:
𝜋d
Q =C × 2gH
4

15
 𝜋d
K H =C × 2gH
4
K H
C =
𝜋d
× 2gH
4
With this formula, Cd can be found. Using the K1 and n found earlier through the trendline, the
formulas for each given head are as follows:
.
0.0002291395205H
C =
𝜋(0.01 m) m
× 2(9.81 )H
4 s
.
0.0002291395205(0.9 m)
C = = 0.6518724933
𝜋(0.01 m) m
× 2(9.81 )(0.9 m)
4 s
.
0.0002291395205(0.8 m)
C = = 0.6443685906
𝜋(0.01 m) m
× 2(9.81 )(0.8 m)
4 s
.
0.0002291395205(0.7 m)
C = = 0.6359657897
𝜋(0.01 m) m
× 2(9.81 )(0.7 m)
4 s
Taking the average of the discharge coefficients:
0.6518724933 + 0.6443685906 + 0.6359657897
Ave C = = 0.644068958
3

C d vs log Re
0.652
0.65
0.648
0.646
0.644
CD

0.642
0.64
0.638
0.636
0.634
4.4 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.47 4.48
LOG RE

The graph above shows the relationship between the discharge coefficient and log Re. As can
be seen, there is a clear decrease in discharge coefficient as the height of the head is reduced. Run 1
is the point furthest to the right and the discharge coefficient reduces after each succeeding run

16
where the head height is reduced. The Reynolds number also sees a similar decrease which indicates
that the two variables, discharge coefficient and Reynolds number, may be related in some way.
Going back to the discharge coefficient, the average discharge coefficient found earlier using
linear regression can be compared to the average discharge coefficient found through volumetric
means. The discharge coefficient found volumetrically is found in the data table and can be averaged
as follows:
0.650 + 0.648 + 0.635
Ave C = = 0.6443333333
3
Comparing the difference between the two average discharge coefficient values:
|0.6443333333-0.644068958|
% difference = × 100% = 0.041039273%
(0.6443333333 + 0.644068958)
2
Based on the computations above, there is only a percent difference of 0.041039273%
between the two average discharge coefficient values. Realistically, that is an almost negligible
amount of difference.

log Q A vs log H
-3.2
-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
-3.3

-3.4

-3.5
LOG QA

-3.6
y = -4.6456x - 3.9607
R² = 0.9738 -3.7

-3.8

-3.9
LOG H

The graph above shows the relationship between variables log Q A and log H. As can be seen
in the graph, there is a negative linear relationship between these variables. A trendline is again
generated through linear regression in Microsoft Excel. The trendline equation is found to be y = -
4.6456x – 3.9607. From this, n and K1 can be determined through the formula for QA.
Just from the trendline equation, n can already be determined as n=-4.6456. K 1 can be
determined by doing the following:
log K = -3.9607
However according to logarithmic rules, this can be rewritten as:
K = 10- .
= 0.0001094712306
Which gives means that the formula for QA is:
.
Q = 0.0001094712306H

17
 H vs log Re
1

0.8

0.6
H

0.4

0.2

0
4.15 4.2 4.25 4.3 4.35 4.4 4.45
LOG RE

The graph above shows the relationship between variables H and log Re. From the graph, it
can be said that the two variables are inversely related. When H decreases, log Re increases. What
this means in terms of the law of flow is that as the Reynolds number increases, an increase in the
actual flow rate can also be observed.

Observations and Recommendations

Present briefly your individual observations and recommendations

Observations

From the results and data gathered through the experiment, a few notable observations can
be made. For the sharp-edged orifice, a clear relationship between the actual volume flow rate and
the height of the head can be established. As the height of the head increases, so does the volume flow
rate. This likely because of the increased water weight that comes with increasing the head.
Increasing the head means also increasing the amount of water trying to exit. The resulting increase
in water weight also increases the volume of which the water exits. This should be true in any
scenario; however, this is not the case when observing the data from the sharp-edged notch. It seems
that the opposite is true when looking at the data as actual volume flow decreases as head is increased.
This should not be the case and may indicate that the data gathered is incorrect. Manual
computations done for the table for the sharp-edged notch also hint at the possibility that some of
the data provided may be incorrectly computed. It is also worth noting that when comparing the
average discharge coefficient computed through volumetric means and the average discharge
coefficient computed using log QA and log H, the computed values are not that different from each
other. This shows that the data, at least for the sharp-edged orifice, is accurate and consistent.

Recommendations

For future iterations of this experiment, the use of a Venturi Tube as an added set of data
should be considered. The original parameters of this experiment included a Venturi Tube; however,
due to unforeseen circumstances the Venturi Tube was unavailable at the time the data was taken.

18
Investigations as to why actual volume flow increased when head was decreased in the sharp-edged
notch should also be undertaken. Further insight regarding the matter could lead to a breakthrough
as to why the data for that section was erroneous.

Conclusion

In conclusion, only the data regarding the sharp-edged orifice was according to what was
expected. During this part of the experiment, it was found that decreasing the head height would lead
to a reduction of actual volume flow. Calculating Cd values through trendlines and volumetric means
lead to similar average Cd values for the orifice. The data regarding the discharge on the sharp-edged
notch is likely incorrect. Actual volume flow should not increase when the head is reduced, unlike
what was found in the data.

Questions and Answers (NOTE: Use separate sheet for the answers.)

1. A V-notch weir discharges water at a rate of 8.72 cm3/s and has a coefficient of discharge of
1.623. How high is the water above the apex of the weir?
Assuming ϴ = 900:
Q
H =
8 𝜃
C 2g tan
15 2
m
0.00000872
H = s
8 m 90
1.623 2(9.81 ) tan
15 s 2

m
0.00000872
H=⎛ s ⎞ = 0.005530187984 m
8 m 90
1.623 2(9.81 ) tan
⎝ 15 s 2 ⎠

2. When calculating the quantity of water flowing through a weir, one will come across a variable
𝐶𝑑 known as the coefficient of discharge. What does this signify?
Generally speaking, the coefficient of discharge refers to the ratio of actual flow to theoretical
flow. In other words, it is the ratio of the flow you measure in real life as opposed to the maximum
flow, found through a series of formulas, given certain parameters. In terms of weirs, the water
flowing through it is likely not the theoretical maximum flow that the designers originally
planned due to unforeseen factors. Actual flow will be lower in this situation meaning that the
value of Cd will never exceed 1. The discharge coefficient can also be used to find actual volume
flow provided that theoretical volume flow is also known (Discharge Coefficient For Nozzles And
Orifices, n.d.).

19
3. A Venturi tube has an inner diameter of 2.0 inches and a throat diameter of 1.25 in. Based on the
experiment, it was found that 𝐶𝑑 =0.18 and the pressure head difference was 594.7 in Hg. What
is the flow inside the Venturi tube?
gh 𝛾 1 1
𝑄 =C -1 / -
8 𝛾 D D

in
(386.0886 )(594.7 in Hg) 1 1 in
𝑄 = 0.18 s (13.6-1)/ - = 183.729095
8 1.25 2 s

4. A jet discharge from an orifice in a vertical plane under a head of 10 ft. The diameter of orifice is
1.416 inches and the measured discharge is 0.202 cfs. The coordinates of the centre line of the jet
are 11.02 ft. horizontally from the vena contracta and 2.75 ft. below the centre of orifice.
Find the coefficients of discharge, velocity and contraction.
Q
C =
𝜋d
× 2gH
4
ft
0.202
C = s = 0.7278712067
𝜋(0.118 ft) ft
× 2(32.2 )(10 ft)
4 s

𝑣
𝐶 =
𝑉

11.02 ft
−2(−2.75 𝑚)
ft
32.2
s
𝐶 = = 1.050715773
ft
2(32.2 )(10 ft)
s

𝐶
𝐶 =
𝐶

0.7278712067
𝐶 = = 0.6927384409
1.050715773

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References

Discharge Coefficient For Nozzles And Orifices. (n.d.). Retrieved from Neutrium:
https://neutrium.net/fluid-flow/discharge-coefficient-for-nozzles-and-orifices/

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