Neurophysiology(CNS)

By Tadesse Y

May 2021

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 Presentation outline

Introduction
- General organization of the nervous system
- Sensory system
- Sensory functions of the nervous system
- Sensory receptors, classification
- Sensory pathways(ascending tracts)
-Motor systems
- General aspects
- Pyramidal and extra pyramidal systems
- Integrative system
- Cerebral cortex
- Sleep (types and stages)
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 Introduction
• Nervous system has tremendous functions
• Few of these are:
 visceral functions
 sensory perceptions
voluntary movement, behavior
emotions, dreams, and abstract thinking.
Sleep and wakefulness
Consciousness
Planning the future
Learning and memory
Etc
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• The above all functions may be categorized under three basic
functions(systems)
• Sensory: receive information and brings to CNS to be processed
• Include Sensory receptors, sensory neuron and the area where these
information are received
• Afferent pathway
• Integrative: process, analyses and make decision about information
• Higher brain function, channeling and processing information
• Integrate sensory and motor
• Motor: carry the decision to the effector organs for response
• Efferent pathway
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• To carry out its function,
it is designed in special way(interconnected)
Contains
Neurons and glial cells
Neurons connected with neuron or muscle by synapse
Neurons release neurotransmitter(excitatory, inhibitory)
Needs blood supply(metabolic)
Have fluid environment
Work by principles

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• Human brain = 1500gms
• Neuron = 1012
• Neuroglia = 10 times neuron(1013)
• 1 neuron forms = 103- 105 synaptic junctions
• Possible synapses = 1015 – 1017

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Basic design of the NS

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 Sensory system
• Significance of the sensory systems

1. Exploring the external world

• Sensation
• Control of movement
• Maintaining arousal

2. Orientation and survival

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 Sensory System
• Is parts of the nervous system that receive signals from the
environment and from the interior of the body and conduct and
process these signals.
• Contains receptors, sensory neurons and the area of the cortex where
sensory information is received
• Sensory information is processed by the thalamus and transmitted to
the cerebral cortex.
• Thalamus is an essential relay point (nuclei) except in olfaction.

• Sensation: is the awareness of sensory stimuli in the brain.

• Perception: meaningful interpretation or conscious understanding of
sensory data
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• Sensory information is categorized as either:
1. Somatic (body sense) sensation arising from the body surface,
including somatic sensation from the skin & proprioception from the
muscles, joints, skin, & inner ear; or
2. Visceral sensation from visceral organs
3. Special senses, including vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, & smell
• Final processing of sensory input by the CNS not only is essential for
interaction with the environment for basic survival (e.g. food
procurement & defense from danger) but also adds immeasurably to
the richness of life

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Stimulus
• A factor that elicits a sensory impression of a certain quality.
• Measurable quantity.
• A stimulus acquires its quality by virtue of the reaction with the
stimulus detecting cells of the sense organs - the receptors.
• Environmental signals: mechanical force, light, sound, chemicals, and
temperature
• Internal environment: the change in osmolarity, chemical
concentration, pressure, etc

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Receptor
• Transducer (a neuron or a specialized cell) that converts a particular
form of energy in the environment into action potentials in neurons.
• Located at sites exposed to their specific stimuli.
• Specialization of receptors for specific qualities.
• Classification of receptors

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Central receptors

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Stimulus transduction
• Sensory systems convert one form of energy into an electrical signal
• This conversion of one energy form (eg. light) into an electrical signal
(receptor potential) is known as stimulus transduction
• Receptor potentials have the same properties as synaptic potentials.
• Like synaptic potential, the receptor potential is graded.
• A receptor may be either a specialized nerve ending of an afferent
neuron or a separate cell that is intimately associated with the
peripheral endings of the neuron.
• The process of stimulus transduction involves the opening or closing
of ion channels on a specialized plasma membrane

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 Sensory Information
• All sensory pathways begin with a stimulus, which acts on sensory
receptors that convert the stimulus into neural signals, which are
transmitted by sensory neurons to the brain, where they are integrated

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 Neurophysiology of pain
• Definition of pain
Pain receptors
Causes of pain

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• Pain is unpleasant sensation ranging from mild discomfort to
agonized distress associated with tissue damagee.
• It is a protective mechanism
• The pain receptors are free nerve endings.
• They are widespread in the superficial layers of various organs.

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 Causes of pain

• Tissue damage

• Ischemia

• Muscle spasm

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1. Tissue damage
• During tissue damage, chemicals can cause direct damage of nerve
fibers .
• Production of chemicals as a result of damage (e.g.bradykinin )
cause extreme stimulation of chemosensitive nerve fibers.
2. Ischemia
• Tissue ischemia causes pain.
• It is due to accumulation of lactic acid due to the anaerobic
metabolism.

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3. Muscle spasm
• This is very common and it is the basis of chemical pain syndromes
• Direct effect of muscle spasm stimulates mechanosensitive pain
receptors.
• Indirect effect through spasm causing ischemia

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Peripheral chemical mediators

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Organization of Sensory Pathways

• Stimulus  sensory receptor  afferent/sensory neuron/1st order

neuron  dorsal horn of spinal cord  2nd order neuron/tracts to brain
stem/reticular formation  thalamus  3rd order neuron
/thalamocortical projections  cerebral cortex (sensory area, S1/S2)
 perception & sensation.
• In somatosensory system, different pathways in the spinal cord have
different targets in the brain
• Modalities differ in their receptors, pathways, and targets, and also in
the level of crossing the midline

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Two Ascending Sensory Pathways

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a. The Ventral spinothalamic tract
• Transmits crude touch, pressure, itching and tickle sensations.
b. The dorsal column-lemniscal pathway/Gracile and cuneate tracts
• Transmits fine touch
• Pressure and muscle tension sensations.
• Proprioceptive sensations.
• Gracile tract: lower part of the body, medial
• Cuneate tract: upper parts of the body, lateral

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 The Motor system
• Descending motor tracts/Descending tracts:
 
• A descending tract is a motor tract, which conducts motor signals
from higher brain centers down to the lower motor neurons in the
motor neuron pool.

A. Pyramidal
B. Extrapyramidal

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• Pyramidal tracts
• 
• Corticospinal tract: terminates on the LMN of the spinal cord.
• Corticonuclear tract and
• Corticobulbar tract: terminates on cranial motor nuclei in the
midbrain, pons & medulla.

•NB. Work as a large network rather than independent inputs to the

LMN.

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 Properties Corticospinal tract

• Only one upper motor neuron is

involved.
• Fibers occupy the pyramid of
the medulla oblongata.
• 85-90% fibers descend crossing
to the other side.
• Its effects are excitatory and
facilitatory to muscle (and its
tone).

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 Corticospinal tract

• Functions

• Influence LMNs in the anterior horn

of the spinal cord or the motor nuclei
of cranial nerves in the brainstem
• Controls-voluntary movement.
• Provide gating for spinal reflexes,
responsible for descending influences
on afferent(ascending sensory)
systems.

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 Corticospinal tract

In lower medulla
o Cross to the opposite side (85-90%).
o Form the motor/pyramidal decussation

• Lateral corticospinal tract

o Crossed and innervate the limbs.

• Anterior corticospinal tract

o Bilateral and innervate the trunk

o
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Corticonuclear tract/Corticobulbar tract

• Origin
• From the eye field area in the frontal lobe (Area 8) &
• Related areas in the motor & somatosensory areas
• Course and destination
• Fibers descend down through the genu of the internal capsule to
the brainstem.
• Terminate on the nuclei of cranial nerves III, IV in the midbrain &
V in the pons on both sides & VI, VII, IX, X, XI & XII (bilateral)

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Corticonuclear tract/Corticobulbar tract

Functions
• Voluntary conjugate movements of the eye to look at different objects.
• Facilitate the stretch reflex of the external ocular muscles.
• Exert descending influences on spinal cord neurons (terminate in RF,
superior colliculus & red nucleus).

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 The Extrapyramidal System

• Arise from various brainstem nuclei.

• Descend to the spinal cord and terminate at LMN (final common
paths).

• Controlled by many cortical motor areas…(basal ganglia,

thalamus, red nucleus, superior and inferior colliculi, RF,
vestibular, inferior olivary nuclei

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 The Extrapyramidal System
• Origins
•
• Red nucleus.
• Reticular formation of the brainstem.
• Tectum of midbrain ( & the inferior olive of the medulla).
• Vestibular nuclei.

• NB: All these parts send signals down to the spinal motor nuclei in the
descending extrapyramidal tracts.

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 The Extrapyramidal System
Properties
• Multiple neurons and synapses involved.
• Tracts do not occupy the pyramid of the medulla oblongata.
• Tracts descend directly (only some of its tracts cross).
• Cortical control area is wide.
• Either it is facilitatory or inhibitory (inhibitory effect is
predominating).

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 The Extrapyramidal System
•Functions
• Control of proximal & truncal musculature (muscle tone, posture
and equilibrium)
• Coordinates body movement, postural stability during voluntary
movements & changes in body position (purposeful motor
behavior).
• Mediation of gross movements (a group of large muscles).
• Provides a weaker alternative to the pyramidal system for
mediation of some discrete movements
• Adjustment of the skeletal muscle tone through facilitation or
inhibition, an adjustment to muscle movements to match preset
plans to reach a certain target

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 The Extrapyramidal System

• Types:

• Reticulospinal

• Rubrospinal

• Tectospinal

• Vestibulospinal tracts
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 Reticulospinal tract
• Origin: Inhibitory RF of the brainstem.
• Acts on -motor neurons
RF= Reticular formation
i. Lateral reticulospinal tract/Medullary
Origin: Pontine, rostral medullary RF & inhibitory RF of the medulla
• inhibiting the stretch reflex & skeletal muscle tone.
• Orientation of the body & muscle tone.
ii. Ventral reticulospinal tract/Pontine
Origin: Facilitatory RF of the pons
• facilitates the stretch reflex & the skeletal muscle tone
• Control of breathing
• increase autonomic sensitivity
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Lateral and ventral Reticulospinal tract

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 Rubrospinal tract

• Located in the midbrain.

•Origin
• Red nucleus in the midbrain.
• Fibers decussate in the midbrain  travel through the brainstem
tegmentum  descend on the contralateral side in the lateral column
of the spinal cord  LMN that innervate the flexors of upper limb
(inhibiting the extensors).
• Functions of the red nucleus
o Acts as an accessory pathway for the corticospinal tract.
o Can initiate gross movements

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 Tectospinal tract

i. Lateral tectospinal tract

• Origin: Superior colliculus.
• Fibers travel bilaterally  brainstem &
anterior white columns of the spinal cord 
project to the cervical spinal cord 
innervate motor neurons responsible
for neck movements
• Responsible for orienting the head and
neck during eye movements
• Concerned with directing the eye and
turning the head towards a light source
(visuospinal reflexes).
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ii. Ventral tectospinal tract
• Originates from the inferior colliculus.
• Crosses to the opposite side and terminates in the cervical segments of
the spinal cord.
• Concerned with turning the head to direct the ears towards a sound
source (audiospinal reflexes).

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 Vestibulospinal tracts

• Origin
• Vestibular nuclei (Caudal pons & Rostral medulla).
• Types
• Medial vestibulospinal tract
• Lateral vestibulospinal tract.

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i. Medial vestibulospinal tract
• Origin: medial vestibular nucleus.
• Descends bilaterally  brainstem  anterior white columns of the
spinal cord  LMN of cervical + upper thoracic level.
• Influences motor neurons controlling the neck muscles & responsible
for stabilizing the head as we move our bodies or as our head moves
in space and plays a role in coordinating head movements with eye
movements.
• Facilitate stretch reflex and skeletal muscle tone.
• Mediate some postural reflexes

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ii. Lateral vestibulospinal tract
• Origin
• Lateral vestibular nucleus
• Descends ipsilaterally in the anteromedial
area of brainstem uncrossed & travels in the
anterior white column of the spinal cord to
terminate on the - and -motor neurons.

• Terminate at all levels of the ipsilateral

spinal cord to facilitate the activity of
the extensor muscles and inhibit the activity
of the flexor muscles
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Hierarchical arrangement of the cortical motor pathways

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Brain Stem

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 Brain stem
• Oldest part of the brain
• Serves as a way station of command signals from higher neural centers
• Controls:
• Respiration
• CVS
• GI functions
• Equilibrium
• Eye movements

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 Cerebellum
• Second largest part of brain
• Central control of movement, the Coordinator
• It coordinates
• most muscles
• learned skills
• voluntary movement and timing
• Balance and equilibrium

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 Cerebellum

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 Cerebellum

• Is the switching Station

• Receives messages from most of the muscles in the body
• Communicates with the other parts of the brain, and
• Then sends messages about movement and balance back to the body

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 Cerebellum

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 Sources of cerebellar injuries

• Toxins (ethanol, chemotherapy, anticonvulsants)

• Autoantibodies (paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration )
• Structural lesions (strokes, Multiple sclerosis, tumors)
• Inherited cerebellar degenerations

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 Multiple sclerosis

• Is an autoimmune disease of CNS

• antibodies and WBCs attack myelin sheath
• Eventually cause inflammation and damage to axon
• Loss of myelin sheath interrupts production and propagation of action
potential
• Sign and symptoms include
muscle weakness, fatigue, diminished coordination, slurred speech,
blurred vision, bladder dysfunction, and sensory disturbances

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 Stroke
• is a condition in which the brain cells suddenly die because of a lack
of oxygen
• two main types
1. Ischemic stroke
• accounts for about 80% of all strokes
• occurs when a blood clot, or thrombus forms that blocks blood flow to
part of the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic stroke
• occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures
• Bleeding alters the function of neurons
Causes death & one sided paralysis if survived
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• Cerebellar damage has three main disturbances
1. Equilibrium - difficulty in maintaining upright Positions
2. Tone – hypotonia
3. Asynergy in coordination of movements
- regulation of rate range, force & direction of movements

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 Reading assignment
• Basal Ganglia
• help to plan and control complex patterns of muscle movement,
controlling relative intensities of the separate movements, directions of
movements, and sequencing of multiple successive and parallel
movements for achieving specific complicated motor goals
• Motor Cortex
- sometimes called Cerebral cortex
- Is the higher brain function
- The director

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 Parkinson’s disease
• is a chronic and progressive movement disorder
• involves the malfunction and death of vital nerve cells in the brain
especially substantia nigra
• Primary motor signs include
tremor of the hands, arms, legs, jaw and face
bradykinesia or slowness of movement
rigidity or stiffness of the limbs and trunk
postural instability or impaired balance and coordination

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• The Babinski sign is diagnostic of a lesion of the corticospinal tract
• It is extension of the big toe and fanning of the others
• In children it may be normal

• Bing sign is an extensor response when the dorsum of a foot stabbed

by a pin the foot extends toward the pin

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Babinski sign

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Babinski & Bing sign

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 Integrative system
• One of the most important functions of the nervous system is to
process incoming information .
• When important sensory information excites the mind, it is
immediately channeled into proper integrative and motor regions of
the brain to cause desired response.
• Integration is a fascinating, though poorly understood, function of the
cerebrum
• The fundamental processes/operation that cannot be classified as
sensory inputs or motor and autonomic activity are integrative

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• Integrative functions include cerebral activities
such as:

• Sleep and wakefulness

• Consciousness

• Language

• Learning and Memory

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Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex

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 Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex

• The largest part of brain

• Controls
thinking and learning
memory
creativity
 problem-solving (Determines Intelligence)
five senses
 emotion(Personality)
decisions

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 Cerebral Cortex

• Has two halves or hemispheres

• take up most of the volume of the cranial cavity
• highly convoluted
• surface consists convex folds/gyri separated by furrows called sulci

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Cerebral Cortex

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 Cerebral Cortex
• Each hemisphere is roughly
divided into four lobes
• frontal lobe
• parietal lobe
• temporal lobe
• occipital lobe

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 Functions of the Cerebral Lobes

Frontal Lobe- mainly associated Parietal Lobe- mainly associated

with with
• reasoning, planning, parts of • movement, orientation,
• speech, movement, emotions, recognition,
and • perception of stimuli
• problem solving

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 Functions of the Cerebral Lobes

• Occipital Lobe- mainly associated with:

• visual processing
• Temporal Lobe- mainly associated with
• perception and recognition of auditory stimuli,
• memory, and speech

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 Sleep(reading assignment)
• State of rapid reversible unconsciousness from which can be aroused
by sensory stimuli
• An adult person is expected to have 8hrs of sleep
Functions of sleep
1. Neural maturation
2. Facilitation of learning & memory
3. Cognition
4. Clearance of metabolic waste products generated by neural activity in
the awake brain, and
5. Conservation of metabolic energy
6. Restores natural balances among the neuronal centers
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 Types of sleep
1. Non rapid eye movement sleep(NREM sleep)
2. Rapid eye movement sleep(REM sleep) (paradoxical sleep)

Stages of NREM Sleep

Stage I (very light sleep)
Stage II (light sleep)
Stage III (intermediate sleep)
Stage IV (deep sleep)

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Brain waves during sleep

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Thank You!

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