Semiconductors

• Elemental semiconductor

Part of periodic table

II III IV V VI
B C(6)
Al Si(14) P S
Zn Ga Ge(32) As Se
Cd In Sb Te

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 Single Atom-1
• Energy of an electron in an
atom is quantized.

• Quantized levels are knows as

orbits. Electron can go from
higher energy orbit to lower
energy orbit by loosing energy
or vice-versa by gaining
energy.

• energy of an atomic electron

depends not only on its orbital
location, but on angular
momentum, orientation, and
spin as well.
 Many atoms-1
• Electron
• When atoms are
energy
brought together
to form a solid
various
interaction
occurs between
the atom.

• One • Two • Many atoms

atom atoms in a crystal • Splitting of
energy levels
occurs due the
Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle
 Formation of energy bands
Electron
energy

One atom Two atoms Many atoms in a

crystal
Energy
Electron • 4N empty band
Energy states

• 2N+2N • ∫ p
• filled states Eg ∫
• ∫ s
∫

• ∫
∫
Inter atomic distance
Si lattice spacing Isolated
atoms
 Energy band theory of crystals
• When spacing between atoms decrease,
the atomic wave functions overlap
• The crystal becomes electronic system
and has to still obey the Pauli’s exclusion
principle
• The 2s degenerate energy levels spread
out in energy
• This large number of discrete but closely
spaced energy levels - Energy band
 Energy band theory of crystals
• Energy gap decreases as the atomic
spacing decreases
• Energy bands overlap for small enough
distances
• In this case, 2N upper states merge with
and 6N lower states (8N degenerate
states)
• 4N states are occupied by 4N e-s
 Energy band theory of crystals
• These e-s do not belong to s or p shells of
isolated atoms but belong to the crystal
• The band occupied by e- s is called
valance band
• If distance is decreased below the
distance at which the bands overlap, the
energy band structure depends upon
orientation of atoms relative to one
another
 Energy band model
Energy

Conduction
band
Ec
Ec
Eg Eg

Ev Ev
Valence
band
Distance
 Charge Carriers in
Semiconductors
• At 0K temperature Si behaves like an insulator due to
empty conduction band
• As the temperature rises above 0K, conduction band
electrons increases due to thermal excitation across the
band gap

Ec

Electron Eg Hole
EHP
Ev

At 0K At Temp > 0K

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 Charge carriers
• Empty state in VB is called a hole, contributes in
the process of conduction. A hole can be regarded
as a free particle with positive charge.
• Conduction band electron and corresponding
valence band hole is together known as electron-
hole pair (EHP).
• Si atom density is about 5x1022 atoms/cm3 while at
room temperature there are about 1010 EHP/cm3.

• Two types of charge carriers: Holes and electrons

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor (Si)
• Comment: Si is first purified to very high degree,
99.999999999%, before making devices in it.
Si Intrinsic : when
e-
no impurities are
h+ added to the
material

At the equilibrium
Recombination rate, ri = gi, Generation rate
(electron/cm3) n = p (hole / cm3) n(Si)=1010 EHP/cm3

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Intrinsic carrier concentration
 Eg
2
ni  BT 3e kT

B – coefficient related to specific semiconductor = 5.4 × 1030 for Si

T – temperature in Kelvin
Eg – semiconductor bandgap energy = 1.12 eV for Si
k – Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62 × 10-5 eV K-1

ni =1.5 × 1010 carriers cm-3 for Si at 300K

 Extrinsic semiconductor
• Extrinsic semiconductor: when desired impurities are added
to obtain the desired change in the conductivity
• The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is
called Doping
Si
P-type
h+ semiconductor
Al

• Addition of impurities with three valence electrons results in

available empty energy state, a hole
• B, Al, In, Ga (Acceptor impurities)
• Holes are in the majority  majority carrier concentration
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 P-type semiconductor
Ec
Eg
Ea Ea
Ev

T = 0K T  300K
• Acceptor energy level is very close (energetically) to
valence band edge, Ex: Ea-Ev = 0.03 to 0.06 eV for Si
• Acceptance of a valence band electrons by an acceptor level
and the resulting creation of holes (partially empty band)
• Conduction of current is possible in a partially empty energy
band, but not in completely filled energy band
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 N-type semiconductor
Si
N-type
Sb semiconductor
e-

• Addition of impurities with five valence electrons results an

extra electron available current conduction
• P, As, Sb (donor impurities)
• Electron are in the majority  majority carrier
concentration
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 N-type semiconductor

Ed Ec
Ed

Ev

Eg
T = 0K T  300K
• Donor energy level is very close (energetically) to
conduction band edge, Ex: Ec-Ed = 0.03 to 0.06 eV for
Si
• An electron at the donor level is excited to the conduction
band
• In conduction band there are large number of energy levels
are available, electron can hop from one level to another
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PROBLEMS
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Solved-
Problems--Semiconducting-Materials_6821/