Combustion Design

Considerations

EGR 4347
Analysis and Design of Propulsion
Systems

1
PROPERTIES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

• Complete combustion
• Low total pressure loss
• Stability of combustion process
• Proper temperature distribution at the exit with no “hot
spots”
• Short length and small cross section
• Freedom from flameout
• Relightability
• Operation over a wide range of mass flow rates,
pressure and temperatures

2
COMBUSTOR DESIGN GOALS ARE DEFINED
BY THE ENGINE OPERATING
REQUIREMENTS

• LEAN BLOW OUT FUEL-AIR RATIO

• IGNITION FUEL-AIR RATIO
• PATTERN FACTOR
• RADIAL PROFILE FACTOR
• PRESSURE DROP (SYSTEM AND LINER)
• COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
• MAXIMUM WALL TEMPERATURE
• SMOKE AND GASEOUS EMISSIONS
3
 CRITICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

• Equivalence ratio, 
• Combustor loading parameter, CLP
• Space heat release rate, SR
• Reference velocity, Vref
• Main burner dome height, Hd
• Main burner length/dome height ratio, Lmb/Hd
• Passage velocity, Vpass
• Number and spacing of fuel injectors
• Pattern factor correlation parameters, PF
• Profile factor correlation parameter, Pf

4
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

• PATTERN FACTOR
(TEXIT)MAX - (TEXIT)AVE
PF =
(TEXIT)AVE - (TINLET)AVE
• SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

(PINLET)TOTAL - (PEXIT)TOTAL
DPS =
(PINLET)TOTAL
• LINER PRESSURE DROP
(PINLET)STATIC - (PEXIT)STATIC
DP = 5
(PINLET)STATIC
 COMBUSTION PROCESS

• REACTION RATE - f(Temp, Press)

– T & P high fast reaction rate

– limited by rate at which fuel is vaporized

• FUEL/AIR RATIO (OCTANE e.g.)

– 2C8H18 + 25(O2 + 79/21 N2) 16 CO2 + 18H2O + 25(79/21)N2

2(96  18)
 0.0664
– fstoich = 25(32  79 21  28)

 ff
• EQUIVALENCE RATIO, stoich

6
ENGINE OPERATION AFFECTS INGNITION
AND LEAN STABILITY

OPERATIONAL
ENVELOPE
ALTITUDE

DECELERATION

FUEL FLOW
SCHEDULE

IGNITION STABLE
ENVELOPE

FLAMEOUT

MACH NO. ENGINE SPEED

7
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
10
6
4 R ich flam m ability lim it

E qu ivalen ce R atio, 
2
F la m m a b le
m ist F la m m a b le S p o n ta n e o u s
1.0 va p o r ig n itio n
0.6
0.4 L ea n f la m m
a b ilit y lim it
0.2 Flash p oin t

0.1
50 10 0 15 0 20 0 250
T (C )

• PROBLEM: want low  (<1); can easily by 0.5

SOLUTION: locally rich mixture that’s burned then diluted and
cooled to acceptable Tt4
• PROBLEM: want stationary flame within a moving flow
SOLUTION: Recirculating region at front of combustor, or “flame 8
holders” in AB
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Ignition)

• Requires fuel/air mixture be within flammability

limits
• Sufficient residence time
• Ignition source in vicinity of combustible mixture
– If mixture is below Spontaneous Ignition
Temperature (SIT), an ignition source is
required to bring temp up to SIT (Spark Plug)
– Ignition energy - fig 10-68
 const  1
– Ignition Delay tign  exp , 
 T  P 9
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Stability)
• Ability of the combustion process to sustain itself
• PROBLEMS: Too lean or too rich
– Temp & reaction rates drop below that required to heat
and vaporize the fuel/air mixture
• CLP (Combustion Loading Parameter)
– Indication of stability based on mass flow, pressure (n
= 1.8 for typical fuels), and combustor volume

Unstable
m
CLP  
P n Vol  Stable
Unstable

10
CLP
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Stability - CLP)
• Gives an estimate of combustor length
L  Vref t res
t 3A ref t res
 L

m Aref
2"

Vave = Vref
m


L: distance required for combustion to be completed

Aref: cross-sectional area normal to airflow 1

t3: approximate density of air entering combustor  t 3  Pt 3

 c

t res  Pt3 n

11
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Stability - CLP)
 c 1 

Pt 3 c
A4
Eq. 10-31: L  t res Note: this equation needs to be corrected
Tt 4 A ref in your book

Design of “new” combustor based on “old” designs (Table 10-5)

Known Similar Reference New Design

F100: L = 18.5 in
Pt3r
D = 25 in L  Const
Tt 4
Pt3 = 366 psia
  c  1
Tt4max = 3025 R where r  n 
  c 
 c 1
c
Pt 3
L  const Pt3n Thus: the length of main burners
Tt 4 12
varies with pressure and temperature
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Total Pressure Loss)
• Heat interaction (Rayleigh Loss) + Friction/Drag (Fanno Loss)
1 2
q = cpeTte - cpiTti Drag   i i CDA
V
2

Vi D Ve
Tti Tte
i e
q
Cont: Vi i  Vee
i Vi2 eVe2 1
Mom: Pi   Pe   i Vi2CD
gc gc 2
13
Energy: q = c peTte - c pi Tti
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Total Pressure Loss)
Tt4 q  c p3Tt3
• Solution to these 1.
Tt3

c p4 Tt3
3 equations:   1 2
 3 M 32 1  3 M3 
exit, e  4 2.  =  2  Tt4
 
2
inlet, i  3  4 1 +  3 M 32 1  CD  Tt3
• Equations 10-35 thru 3. M 42 
2
10-38 on page 823 1 - 2 4   1 - 2 4  1

P
4. 4 

1 +  3 M 32 1 
CD
2 
P3 1   4 M 42
4
1   4  1 2   4 1
M4 
Pt4 P4  2 
5.  3  1
Pt3 P3
1   3  1 M 2   3 1
 3 14
 2 
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Total Pressure Loss)

1 .0 0 1 .0

0 .9 5 0 .8 0

Pte / Pti 0 .9 0 0 .6

or Me or M4
0 .8 5 0 .4
Pt4 / Pt3
0 .8 0 0 .2

0 .7 5 0 .0
0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 .1 5 0 .2 0 .2 5 0 .3

Mi or M3

15
 COMBUSTOR DIFFUSER
(Total Pressure Loss)
3
Set by Compressor Blade Height
2
1
A1 A2 A3

smooth-wall
diffuser

step (dump)
diffuser
Smooth-Wall Dump

 
 2 2
 A1 
M1 1  1  A 2  2 6 
Pt 2 2  Pt 3     A   A  
 1 
2
 exp  M 2 1  2
  1  2
 
Pt1 Pt 2  2  A   A 3 
1    1 M 2   1  3  
 2 1 16
 COMBUSTOR DESIGN ITERATION

• Estimate the combustor geometry

– Check Combustion Stability (at all flight conditions)
– Determine Combustion Efficiency (at all flight
conditions)
– Calculate Space Rate Heat Release (at all flight
conditions)
– Determine Combustor Reference Velocity (at all flight
conditions)
• NEXT: Modify design based on the above
calculations and typical/target values

17
 Main Burner Areas, Heights, and Velocities

V ref rm
A ref

A comb
ro V comb ~ 30 ft/s

A pass
ri V pass~ 150 ft/s
Main Burner Height, H

m 3a H = ro - ri
Aref = Apass + Acomb Vref  Aref
 t 3 Aref H
2  r18m
 COMBUSTOR DESIGN ITERATION
• Assume the following “typical” combustor geometry
– Primary Combustor Volume, 3.5 ft3 ( Acomb*Lcomb)
– Combustor Reference Area, Aref = (rt2 - rh2) = 5 ft2
– Dome Height, H = rt - rh = 7 in
– Total Combustor Volume, Vol = 7.0 ft3
rt

V ref
H = rt-rh
A ref
Acomb

Primary Volume
Combustor Volume
rh
(includes Primary)
19
Lmb = Ldiff + Lcomb
 COMBUSTOR DESIGN ITERATION

• Can calculate from performance data the following:

– Combustor Efficiency, b
– Check Stability by plotting CLP vs 
– Calculate Space Rate or Space Heat Release Rate -- measure of
intensity of energy release
– Calculate the Reference Velocity, Vref
• Review literature to determine acceptable values for
the above parameters then adjust the design choices
such as Volumes, Areas, and Height. 20
COMBUSTOR EFFICIENCY
(reaction rate parameter)

Tt 3
1.75
P Aref e H
 
b
where b  382 2  ln / 1.03
t3
 .
x 10 5
m3 21
"" when   1.03 "" when   1.03
COMBUSTOR STABILITY (CLP)

m

CLP 
n
P Vol  22
SPACE HEAT RELASE (SR) and
REFERENCE VELOCITY (Vref)

 f AB hPR 3600
m
SR 
Pt (Vol ) AB

.
m3
Vref 
 t 3 Aref

23
 Main Burner Lengths and Mass Flow Rates
Ldiff = Lsm +Ldump Lcomb

Ldiff

local = /50%
m 3a*50%
Primary Com b
Zone

3c Passage
3b
m 3a *50%
m 3a
3a

Lmb
Pt3r Volmb = 0.8Lmb*Aref
Lmb = Ldiff + Lcomb Lmb  const
Tt 4 24
Volcomb = Lcomb*Acomb
Afterburner Design Requirements

*Large temperature rise

*Low dry loss (non-AB thrust)
*Wide temperature modulation (throttle)
*High combustion efficiency
*Short length; light weight
*Altitude light-off capability
*No acoustic combustion instabilities
*Long life, low cost, easy repair
25
 Afterburners
Components:
• Diffuser
• Spray Ring
• Flame Holder
• Cooling Liner
• Screech Liner
• Variable Throat Nozzle

26
 Afterburners - Components
Diffuser Combustion Section

Zone 4 fuel spray ring

Zone 3 fuel spray ring
Zone 2 fuel spray ring

Fan flow Splitter cone Flame holder

Core flow Cooling Liner

Zone 2 fuel Zone 1 fuel Diffuser cone

spray ring spray ring Linear perforated

Linear louvered

Station 6 Station 7

27
 Afterburners - Components

Spray Ring
Flame Holder
V2
Diffuser H
d Recirculating Zone
W
L

Mixing Zone

28
 Diffuser
• Balance between low total pressure loss
during combustion (loss Mach no) and
AB cross-sectional area (no larger than
largest diameter upstream)

• Short diffuser to reduce AB length with low

total pressure loss

• Analysis - same as combustor diffuser

29
Spray Ring - Injection, Atomization,
Vaporization, & Ignition
• Injection: core stream first (high temp)
spray
ring

Fuel is injected
perpendicular to air stream &
ripped into micron-sized droplets (atomized).
Fuel is vaporized then ignited prior to
being trapped in downstream flameholder

• Ignition: spark or arc igniter

pilot burner 30
 Flame Holder - Flame Stabilization
V2
• Two main types d
– V-gutter Flame Holders Recirculating Zone
W
– Pilot burners L
Flame Holder
Mixing Zone
• Bluff body that generates a low-speed mixing
region just downstream of fuel injection
– high local equivalence ratio (~ 1)
– 2 zones: 1) Mixing - turbulent flow with very high shear
sharp temp gradients and vigorous chemical reactions;
2) Recirculating - strong recirculation, low reaction rates
and temps very near stoiciometric 31
 Cooling and Screech Liner
• Cooling
– Isolates the very high temperatures from outer casing. In F119
all the fan air is used to cool the AB and Nozzle during
AB operation.
• Screech
– Attenuates high frequency oscillations associated with
combustion instability (high heat release rates)
– 200-20000 Hz,high heat loading & vibratory stresses
Rumble

Alt

Screech Regime
32
M
 Variable Nozzle

• MFP - applied at Nozzle throat, M8 = 1

m
 8 Tt 8
A8 
Pt 8MFP( M8 )

33
 Single Flameholder Design

Dmax= 35 in

d V2
V1 W H
L
1, i e
Inlet Conditions (Typical) Flameholder Geometry (Choice)
Pt1 = 40 psia  = 1.33 half angle,  = 30 deg
Tt1 =1750 R d = 3.5 in
m = 200 lbm/s local = 0.8
Exit Conditions (Typical)
Tte = 3800 R 2 = 1.3
fAB = 0.035 34
 Design Calculations
m
 1 Tt1
1. Find M1 MFP( M1 ) 
Pt1A1

2. Check for flame stability for local = 0.8

Tt1 Pt1
T1  P1 
  1 1 2    1 1 2 
1
( 1 1)
1  M1  1  M1 
 2   2 
Eq. 10-53 and Fig 10-89
k ()
Characteristic ignition time, tc t c ref  2.5
Pref Tref
2.5
k () t c ref Pref Tref
tc  2.5

PT PT 2.5
35
 Design Calculations (cont’d)
L
2. Flame stability (cont’d) eq 10-51: tc 
V2c
want something in terms of V1c, H, and tc, where V1c
is the maximum entrance velocity for a stable flame
 V1c tc  V1c L W  V1  L  W 
        eq 10  54
 H  Blowout H V2c W  V2  W  H 

V1 W are functions of flameholder blockage

,
V2 H ratio, B = d/H - see Table 10-7
L
4
W
Solve for V1c above and compare to V1  M1  1RT1g c
If V1c > V1, the flame will not blow out 36
 Design Calculations (cont’d)
3. Total Pressure Drop (AB) - Target Values: Fig 10-90
Diffuser: combination of smooth wall & dump
- same approach as main combustor diffuser
using equations 10-42a&b and 10-43

Rayleigh + Fanno: CD & Tte/Tti

- Tte/Tti is given from calculations (Perf)
- CD is estimated using equation 10-57
2
V 
C D  B 2 
 V1 
- Use equations 10-35 thru 10-38 to determine
pressure ratio due to Rayleigh & Fanno losses
37
 Design Calculations (cont’d)

4. Total Afterburner Length - Based on Fig 10-92

5. Space Heat Release Rate, SR

 f AB hPR 3600
m
SR 
Pt (Vol ) AB

Vol = (total length x AB cross-sectional area)

Desired value near 8 x 106 Btu/(hr ft3 atm)

38
 Combustion Chemistry
- General Fuel-to-Air Stoichiometric Equation
 y z  y z y  y z
C x H y Oz   x   O2  3.76 x    N 2  xCO2  H 2O  3.76 x    N 2
 4 2  4 2 2  4 2

m fuel 12 x  1y  16 z
f stoich  
mair  y z
 x   32  3.76  28.16
 4 2

- Simple Approximation for Heating Value of the Fuel

(Hill and Peterson, p. 221)
H
hPR  15,900  15,800    in BTU
C lb m
H 1.008  m
where  for Hydrocarbon C n H m
C 12.01  n

39
 Combustion Chemistry
Fuel Heating Value (Btu/lbm) Estimate (Btu/lbm)
JP4 (CH2.02) 18,4001 18,579
Propane (C3H8) 19,9442 19,436
Methane (CH4) 21,5182 21,203

Liquid Hydrogen 51,5932

(Equation not Valid)

1
EGTP, pg 827
2
Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, pg 4-29, table 4.1.6

40
 Combustion Chemistry
- Non-Reacting Mixtures-
Basic Equations Applied Equations
k
mass: m m   mi
i 1
1.9857117 (Btu/lbmole R)
R
k 28.97 - f  0.946186lbm /lb mole 
Mole Number : N m  N i C p  A0  A1T  A2T 2  A3T 3  A4T 4
i 1
 A5T 5  A6T 6  A7T 7
k k
C pair  f  C pprod
Mass Fraction: mfi   mfi ,  mfi  1 C pm 
i 1 i 1 1 f
1
k  R 
Ni   1  m 
Mole Fraction:  i  ,  i  1  C pm 
Nm i 1

k
Mass: mi  N i M i ; m m    i M i
i 1
-Coefficients for Cp equation given in
Ru Table 2-4 (pg 106) Mattingly
Gas Constant: R m 
Mm
-Variation in properties given in
Figures 6-1 and 6-2 41
 Combustion Chemistry
- Variation with Temp-

Cp versus Temp for JP-4  versus Temp for JP-4

0.36 1.42
f=0
1.4 f = 0.02
0.34 f = 0.04
1.38 f = 0.06
f = 0.0676
0.32
1.36
Cp (Btu/lbmR)

0.3 1.34


0.28 1.32

1.3
0.26 f=0
f = 0.02 1.28
f = 0.04
0.24 f = 0.06 1.26
f = 0.0676
0.22 1.24
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Temp (R) Temp (R)

42
 Design Example
For the information given on the 1st slide, find the following:

1. M1 and V1

2. V1c (check stability)

3. Pressure ratio due to Rayleigh and Fanno losses

4. AB length

5. SR

43
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
(Total Pressure Loss)

Example: What is the pressure ratio across the

burner for the following conditions:
Pt4/Pt3

1. Tt4/Tt3 = 3.0 and CD = 0 (No Drag)

2. Tt4/Tt3 = 1 and CD = 2.0 (No q)

3. Tt4/Tt3 = 3.0 and CD = 2.0 (Both Drag and q)

44
 COMBUSTOR DIFFUSER
(Total Pressure Loss)
Station 1 to 2 (smooth-wall, sm) Set by Compressor Blade Height

2
1
Given:  = 0.9, A1/A3 = 0.20
Hsm
M1 = 0.5
Pick: A1/A2 = ________
Lsm
Find: Pt2/Pt1 = __________ (Use Eq 9.17b)
M2 = _______ (Use MFP)
3
Lsm/Hsm = ___________ (Use Fig 9.8)
Station 2 to 3 (Dump)
Calc: A2/A3 = ________ 2 HD

Find: Pt3/Pt2 = __________ (Use Eq 9.18)

M3 = ___________ (Use MFP) LD  HD
45
Overall Pressure Ratio of Diffuser, Pt3/Pt1: _________