Sensors

-measure and report

the state of some variable which characterizes the process

sensor
Process Control/Reporting
Sensing device Transducer Interface
Interface

uses a physical/chemical property converts it into useful signal

Temperature
physical property used?

mercury thermometers ??

Fe T2

A C Seebeck effect:
thermoelements V
emf in a circuit connecting elements
T1 B
Al T2 maintained at different temp

resistors: dR/dT != 0
RTD (resistance temperature detector)
platinum: linear over large range

semiconductors: dR/dT != 0
Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors)
inaccurate, but very sensitive

Applications:
chemical processes, food processing, pasteurization,
many manufacturing processes, …
Position/Displacement physical property used?
L
x

variable  Length of resistor = L

(potentiometer) R
Total resistance = R
Loop Resistance (function of position, x) = Rx/L
A
+ -

capacitors: dC/dx != 0
variable capacitance
very sensitive (sub-micron range)
V02 = KVref cos

Faraday’s law, induced emf in coils

variable inductance Rotor

(resolver) ~ AC supply Vref

V01 = KVref sin

Stator

Applications: ??
Velocity
physical property used?
L
x

Linear Velocity potentiometer

Length of resistor = L
Total resistance = R dR/dx
R Loop Resistance (function of position, x) = Rx/L
A
+ -

V02 = KVref cos

Rotor

~ AC supply Vref

Linear Velocity 

V01 = KVref sin

Stator

commutator

Angular Velocity
N S
Faraday’s law
tachometer

V01

Applications: ?
Derivatives of velocity
physical property used?

acceleration: a = dV/dt L spring

x
(accelerometer)
spring loaded potentiometer
R
A
+ -

jerk: da/dt x
L
spring electronic
R
A
differentiator
+-

Applications:
Machine tools, Crash sensors, …
 Presence detection
physical property used? applications

moving magnet type Faraday’s law

inductive Faraday’s law

induced reverse damped current

oscillator
emf emf current sensor

(a) Retroflective Arrangement

optical sensor Transmitter beam

cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide: Reflector

Photoconductive cells Receiver

conductivity  incident light object to

be sensed

(b) Opposed (Through-Beam) Arrangement

beam
Transmitter Receiver

Photovoltaic cells Photoelectric effect

object to
be sensed

(c) Diffuse Arrangement

Transmitter beam
object to
be sensed
Receiver
Other sensors
physical property used?
current ammeter, glavanometer
voltage voltmeter multimeter
resistance ohmmeter

Flow rates of fluids

P2

P1
Bernoulli's principle

Mass ??
Force/Pressure
dynamometers Newton’s law
piezo-electric quartz: watches

Barium titanate, lead zirconate: piezoelectric effect

ultrasonic sensors, microphones
Sensor Characteristics: Static

Sensitivity: change in output / change in the input

Resolution: smallest amount of change in the input that can be detected and accurately indicated

Linearity: (of calibration curve) (i) plot static output versus static input
(ii) measure linearity of graph

Drift: deviation in output value when the sensor is kept at constant input level for long time

Special cases: Zero Drift, Full-scale drift

Range: (upper limit – lower limit) of output (or input)

Repeatability: deviation in repeated measurements of same object, from same direction

Reproducibility: repeatability over long time lapses between measurements

Sensor Characteristics: Dynamic
Mp

Sensor Response
1.0

0.5

Td 2 Tp 4 6 Ts 8 Time 10

Rise time: time to pass between 10% to 90% of the steady state value (SSV) of response

Delay time: time it takes to reach 50% of SSV for the first time

Peak time: time it takes to reach the maximum reading for the first time

Settling time: time taken to settle down to within, e.g. ± 1%, the steady state value (SSV)

Percentage overshoot: (peak value - SSV) / SSV

Steady-state error: deviation of the actual SSV from the desired value
Sensor Characteristics: Statistical

ACCURACY: the difference between the ACTUAL and the MEASURED value

measure: (mean readings – actual value)

. .
. . PRECISION: the variations of the MEASURED value
.
. . Low Accuracy, Low Precision
.. . measure: (standard deviation of readings)
.
. . .

Low Accuracy, High Precision

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....... .. High Accuracy, High Precision

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