射线安全 克拉胜大学教材

Radiation Safety
Training

Elayna Mellas
Radiation Safety Officer
Environmental Health & Safety Manager
Clarkson University
Downtown Snell 155
Tel: 315-268-6640
emellas@clarkson.edu
This training course has been partially adapted
from slides provided by Steve Backurz, Radiation
Safety Officer of The University of New Hampshire
 Table of Contents 目录

Subject Slides
Nuclear Physics 3-30
Biological Effects 31-43
Radiation Exposure and Dose 44-60
Uses of Radioactive Material 61-66
Radiation Hazards 67-80
Radiation Detection 81-87
Lab Procedures at Clarkson 88-115
 Introduction
 Radiation and radioactive materials are valuable tools

 Radio-labeling of biological materials

 Sealed sources in chemistry/engineering

 X-ray diffraction analysis of samples for chemistry and

engineering research

 Radioactive materials and X-ray machines are very safe if

used properly and simple precautions are followed
 Review of Atomic Structure
 Nucleus
 Contains protons and neutrons
 Small Size
 Relatively large mass
 Extremely large density
 Large amount of stored energy
 Orbiting Electrons
 Large size
 Low density
 Orbit nucleus near speed of light
 Small amount of energy relative to nucleus
 Responsible for chemical bonds
 Nomenclature for Elements
"X" = Element Symbol
"Z" = # Protons
Each element has a unique "Z”
"N” = # Neutrons A
Atomic Mass # = "A"
"A" = Z + N = # Protons + # Neutrons Z X
Isotope: same Z, different N, thus different A
 Cobalt-60 Atom

27 Protons 60
33 Neutrons Co
A = 60 27
Z = 27

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_scheme
 Radioactivity ("Activity")
 Definition: A collection of unstable atoms that undergo
spontaneous transformation that result in new elements.
 An atom with an unstable nucleus will “decay” until it

becomes a stable atom, emitting radiation as it decays

 Sometimes a substance undergoes several radioactive decays

before it reaches a stable state

 The “amount” of radioactivity (called activity) is given by

the number of nuclear decays that occur per unit time

(decays per minute).
 The Curie
 A unit of activity defined by the number of radioactive decays
from a gram of radium
 1Curie (Ci) = 2.22 E12 disintegrations/minute (dpm)
 Sub-multiples of the Curie:
 millicurie 1 mCi = 2.22 E9 dpm
 microcurie 1 uCi = 2.22 E6 dpm
 nanocurie 1 nCi = 2,220 dpm
 picocurie 1 pCi = 2.2 dpm
 Typical activities at Clarkson are in the Ci to mCi

range
 Other Units of Measure
 Disintegrations per minute (dpm)

 Disintegrations per second (dps)

 The SI unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq)

 1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second

 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 E10 Bq or 37 GBq

1 millicurie = 37 MBq
 1 microcurie = 37 kBq
 Ion

Any atom or molecule with an imbalance in

electrical charge is called an ion
In an electrically neutral atom or molecule,
the number of electrons equals the number
of protons
Ions are very chemically unstable, and will
seek electrical neutrality by reacting with
other atoms or molecules
 Radiation
 Definition: Energy in the form of particles or
waves
 Types of Radiation
 Ionizing: removes electrons from atoms
 Particulate (alphas and betas)
 Waves (gamma and X-rays)
 Non-ionizing (electromagnetic): can't remove

electrons from atoms

 infrared, visible, microwaves, radar, radio

waves, lasers
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radiation Wavelength in Angstrom Units
8 6 4 2 -2 -4 -6
10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10

Radio Infrared V Ultra-Violet X-Rays Cosmic Rays

i Light
s
i
b
l
e Gamma Rays

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10

Photon Energy in Million Electron Volts (MeV)

 Alpha Particles
Alpha particles
 High mass (4 amu) = 2 protons + 2 neutrons
 High charge (+2)
 High linear energy transfer (cause great

biological damage)
 Travel a few centimeters in air
 Stopped by a sheet of paper or protective

layer of skin
 Not an external hazard
 Concern would be for ingestion or inhalation
 Beta Particles
 Low mass (0.0005 amu)
 Low charge - can be positively or negatively
charged (+/- 1)
 Travel 10 - 20 feet in air
 Stopped by a book
 Shield betas with low density materials such
as lucite or plexiglass
 Shielding high energy betas like P-32 with
lead can generate more radiation than it
shields due to Bremsstrahlung X-rays
 Gamma Radiation
Wave type of radiation - non-particulate
Photons that originate from the nucleus of

unstable atoms
No mass and no charge
Travel many feet in air
Lead or steel used as shielding
 Review of Nuclear Decay
1 1
Beta Minus Decay: 0 n 0
 + 1p
-

1
Beta Plus Decay: 1
1
p 0 +
+ 0n
A A-4 4
Alpha Decay: Z
X Z-2 Y + 2
 Examples of Nuclear Decay
32 - 32
Beta Minus Decay: 15 P 0
 + 16 S
(neutron-excess nuclides)

22 + 22
Beta Plus Decay: 11
Na 0  + 10
Ne
(neutron-deficient nuclides)

210 206 4
Alpha Decay: 84
Po 82
Pb + 2
(Heavy nuclides above
atomic number 82)
 Decay Scheme
A decay scheme is a graphical representation of
radioactive decay
Depicts the parent/daughter relationship
Branching fractions and energy levels are shown

137
55
Cs 93.5% 0.514 MeV  -
137m
Ba
6.5% 56
0.662 MeV 
-
1.176 MeV 
137
56
Ba
 Decay Law & Half-Life
 Half life: The time required to reduce the amount of a
particular type of radioactive material by one-half
 Example: 120 Ci of P-32 (t
1/2 = 14 days)

Decay Law: 140

120
t

Activity (curies)
A(t) = A(0) * e 100
80
A(o) = Initial Activity
60
A(t) = Activity after time "t" 40
t = Decay time 20
λ = constant = 0.693 / t1/2 0
0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98
t 1/2 = half-life Time (days)
 X-Rays
 Wave type of radiation - non-particulate
 Photons originating from the electron cloud
 Same properties as gamma rays relative to mass,

charge, distance traveled, and shielding

 Characteristic X-rays are generated when electrons fall

from higher to lower energy electron shells

 Discrete energy depending on the shell energy level

of the atom
 Bremsstrahlung X-rays are created when electrons or

beta particles slow down in the vicinity of a nucleus

 Produced in a broad spectrum of energies
 Reason you shield betas with low density material
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Energy is lost by the incoming charged
particle through a radiative mechanism

Beta Particle Bremsstrahlung

- Photon
+ +

Nucleus
X-Ray Machine Components
High Voltage
Power Supply

Current

Tungsten Filament

Anode Target Cathode

Glass Envelope

Tube Housing
 X-Ray Machine Basics
kVp - how penetrating the X-rays are
 Mammography - 20 - 30 kVp
 Dental - 70 - 90 kVp
 Chest - 110 - 120 kVp
mA - how much radiation is produced
Time - how long the machine is on
Combination of the above determines

exposure
 Types of Radiation
Mass
(amu) Charge Travel Distance in Air

Alpha 4.0000 +2 few centimeters

Beta Plus 0.0005 +1 few meters
Beta Minus 0.0005 -1 few meters

Gamma 0.0000 0 many meters

X-Rays 0.0000 0 many meters
Neutron 1.0000 0 many meters
 Radiation, Radioactive Material,
and Contamination
Radiation: Energy in the form of particles and
waves
Radioactive Material: Material that is unstable

and emits radiation

Contamination: Radioactive material where it

is not wanted
Campfire example: burning logs (radioactive

material), heat (radiation), burning embers that

escape the controlled area (contamination)
 Interaction of Radiation
with Matter
 Radiation deposits small amounts of energy, or "heat"
in matter
 alters atoms
 changes molecules
 damage cells & DNA
 similar effects may occur from chemicals
 Much of the resulting damage is from the

production of ion pairs

 Ionization
The process by which a neutral atom acquires
a positive or negative charge

Alpha Particle - -
+ -
electron is
+ stripped from
atom
The neutral atom
gains a + charge -
= an ion
 Ionization
Ionization by a Beta particle:
- ejected electron

Beta Particle
- - -

Colliding
Coulombic Fields

The neutral absorber atom

acquires a positive charge -
 Gamma Interactions
 Gamma interactions differ from charged
particle Interactions
 Interactions called "cataclysmic" - infrequent

but when they occur lot of energy transferred

 Three possibilities:
 May pass through - no interaction
 May interact, lose energy & change

direction (Compton effect)

 May transfer all its energy & disappear

(photoelectric effect)
 Compton Effect
An incident photon interacts with an orbital electron
to produce a recoil electron and a scattered photon
of energy less than the incident photon

Before interaction After interaction

Scattered Photon
- - - -

- -
- -
Incoming photon Electron is
Collides with electron ejected from atom
Biological Effects of Radiation
 Acute Exposure
Large Doses Received in a Short Time
Period
 Accidents
 Nuclear War
 Cancer Therapy
Short Term Effects (Acute Radiation

Syndrome 150 to 350 rad Whole Body)

Anorexia Nausea Erythema
Fatigue Vomiting Hemorrhage
Epilation Diarrhea Mortality
Effects of Acute Whole Body
Exposure on Man
Absorbed
Dose (Rads) Effect
10,000 Death in a few hours
1,200 Death within days
600 Death within weeks
450 LD 50/30
100 Probable Recovery
50 No observable effect
25 Blood changes definite
5 1st Blood change obs
 Chronic Exposure
 Doses Received over Long Periods
 Background Radiation Exposure
 Occupational Radiation Exposure
 50 rem acute vs 50 rem chronic
 acute: no time for cell repair
 chronic: time for cell repair
 Average US will receive 20 - 30 rem lifetime
 Long Term Effects
 Increased Risk of Cancer
 0.07% per rem lifetime exposure
 Normal Risk: 30% (cancer incidence)
 Cellular Effects
 Ionization within body tissues: similar to water
 Ionization causes many derivatives to be formed:
 Peroxides
 Free Radicals
 Oxides
 These compounds are unstable and are damaging to the
chemical balance of the cell. Various effects on cell
enzymes and and structures occur.
 Radiation is not the only insult responsible
 Pollutants
 Vitamin imbalance (poor diet)
 Sickness and Disease
 Cellular Effects (con't)
 Cells often recover from damage
 Repeated Insults may cause damage to be

permanent
 Cell Death
 Cell Dysfunction - tumors, cancer, cataracts,

blood disorders
 Mitosis (Cell Division) Delayed or Stopped
 Chromosomal breaks
 Organ Dysfunction at High Acute Doses
 Variations in Sensitivity
Wide variation in the radiosensitivity of
various species
 Plants/microrganisms vs. mammals
Wide variation among cell types
 Cells which divide are more sensitive
 Non-differentiated cells are more

sensitive
 Highly differentiated cells (like nerve

cells) are less sensitive

 Effects on the Fetus
The fetus consists of rapidly dividing cells
Dividing cells are more sensitive to radiation

effects than nondividing cells

Effects of low level radiation are difficult to

measure
A lower dose limit is used for the fetus
 Genetic Effects
Itis possible to damage the hereditary material in a
cell nucleus by external influences like Ionizing
radiation, chemicals, etc.
Effects that occur as a result of exposure to a hazard
while in-utero are called teratogenic effects
Teratogenic effects are thought to be more severe
during weeks 8-17 of pregnancy - the period of
formation of the body’s organs
A higher incidence of mental retardation was found
among children irradiated in-utero during the
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Maternal Factors & Pregnancy
Statistically, a radiation exposure of 1 rem poses
much lower risks for a woman than smoking tobacco
or drinking alcohol during pregnancy
Smoking
General Babies weigh 5-9 oz. Less than average
< 1 pack/day Infant Death 1 in 5
> 1 pack/day Infant Death 1 in 3

Alcohol
2 drinks/day Babies weigh 2-6 oz. Less than average 1 in 10
2-4 drinks/day Fetal alcohol syndrome 1 in 3
> 4 drinks/day Fetal alcohol syndrome 1 in 3 to 1 in 2

Radiation
1 rem Childhood leukemia deaths before 12 years 1 in 3333
1 rem Other childhood cancer deaths 1 in 3571
 Dose Response Curves
Acute effects Chronic effects?
Effects occur Effects occur at any
Biological effects

after a threshold level = stochastic

Dose Dose
The stochastic model is more conservative, and is used
to establish dose limits for occupational exposure
 Rate of Absorption
Most important factor in determining when
effects will occur
Recoveryis less likely with higher dose rates
than lower dose rates for an equivalent
amount of dose = more permanent damage
Morerecovery occurs between intermittent
exposures = less permanent damage
 Area Exposed
The larger the portion - the more damage
(if all other factors are the same)
Blood forming organs are more sensitive
Awhole body dose causes more damage
than a localized dose (such as in medical
therapy).
Dose limits take this into consideration
Radiation Exposure & Dose
 Background Exposure
 Your exposure to radiation can never be zero because
background radiation is always present
 Natural Sources - Radon
 Cosmic
 Terrestrial
 Technologically Enhanced Sources (Man-Made)
 Healing Arts: Diagnostic X-rays, Radiopharmaceuticals
 Nuclear Weapons Tests fallout
 Industrial Activities
 Research
 Consumer Products
 Miscellaneous: Air Travel, Transportation of Radioactive

Material
 Annual Dose from
Background Radiation
Total exposure Man-made sources

Medical X-Rays
Radon 55.0% 11

Other 1%

Internal 11%
Man-Made 18% Consumer
Nuclear Products 3%
Cosmic 8% Terrestrial 6% Medicine 4%

Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year

 Cosmic Radiation
2 x 10 particles (mostly protons) per second are
incident
18
on the atmosphere
 Energy greater than one BILLION ELECTRON

VOLTS
 Interact with atoms in the atmosphere and

produce secondary particles

 muons, electrons, photons, and neutrons
 responsible for cosmic dose
 Terrestrial
 Major sources
 Potassium - a few grams per 100 grams of

ground material
 Thorium and Uranium - a few grams per

1,000,000 grams of ground material

 Dose due mainly to photons originating near

the surface of the ground

 Radon
Naturally occurring radioactive gas
 Second leading cause of lung cancer
 Estimated 14,000 deaths per year
 Easy to test for
 short and long term tests available
 EPA guideline is 4 pCi/L
 Fixable
 Radon in water from drilled wells can also

be an entry method
 Exposure, X
A measure of the ionization produced by
X or Gamma Radiation in air
Unit of exposure is the Roentgen

Q (charge)
X=
M (mass of air)
 Absorbed Dose, D
Absorbed Dose (or Radiation Dose) is
equivalent to the energy absorbed from
any type of radiation per unit mass of the
absorber
Unit of Absorbed Dose is the rad
1 rad = 100 ergs/g = 0.01 joules/Kg

In SI notation, 1 gray = 100 rads

 Dose Equivalent, H
One unit of dose equivalent is that
amount of any type of radiation which,
when absorbed in a biological system,
results in the same biological effect as
one unit of low LET radiation
The product of the absorbed dose, D, and

the Quality Factor, Q

H=DQ
 Units of Dose Equivalent
 Human dose measured in rem or millirem
 1000 mrem = 1 rem
 1 rem poses equal risk for any ionizing radiation
 internal or external
 alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray, or neutron
 In SI units 1 sievert (Sv) = 100 rem
 External radiation exposure measured by

dosimetry
 Internal radiation exposure measured using

bioassay sample analysis

Quality Factors for Different
Radiations
Quality Factor
X and Gamma Rays 1
Electrons and Muons 1
Neutrons < 10 kev 5
>10kev to 100 Kev 10
> 100 kev to 2 Mev 20
>2 Mev 10
Protons > 30 Mev 10
Alpha Particles 20
 External Dose
 2 Standard reference points

 Shallow Dose: Live skin tissue at an average depth of .007

cm.
 Deep Dose: Internal organs close to the body surface, 1 cm.

 Shallow Dose Equivalent, SDE
 Alpha radiation not a hazard
 consider beta and gamma radiation.

 Deep Dose Equivalent, DDE

 Alpha and Beta radiation not a hazard.
 For gamma, SDE = DDE (typically)
 Internal Dose
All radiation types present a hazard

2 Dose quantities:
 Committed Dose Equivalent, CDE

(specific to a particular organ)

 Committed Effective Dose Equivalent,

CEDE (sum of all organs x weighting

factor for importance or each specific
organ)
 Total Effective Dose
Equivalent, (TEDE)
 Used to combine internal and external doses

 Puts
all dose on the same risk base comparison,
whether from external or internal sources.

 TEDE = CEDE + DDE

 All units are in rems or Sieverts (Sv)

 All
regulatory dose limits are based on controlling
the TEDE
 Standards for Rad Protection
 Radiation Protection Program Required
 Occupational Limits
 5 rem per year TEDE
 50 rem per year CDE (any single organ)
 15 rem per year lens of the eye
 50 rem per year skin dose
 Members of Public
 100 mrem per year
 No more than 2 mrem in any one hour in

unrestricted areas from external sources

 Declared Pregnant Females (Occupational)
 500 mrem/term (evenly distributed)
 Declared Pregnant Woman
Voluntarily informs her employer in
writing of pregnancy
Estimated date of conception
Dose limit is 10% of occupational limit

(500 mrem)
Avoid substantial variation in dose
Form for declaring pregnancy is on web site
 Clarkson Anticipated
Worker Radiation Exposure
Anticipated Exposures: Less than the
minimum detectable dose for film
badges (10 mrem/month) - essentially
zero
Average annual background exposure

for U.S. population = 360 mrem/year

State and Federal Exposure Limits =

5000 mrem/year
Uses of Radioactive Material
 Consumer Products
 Building materials
 Tobacco (Po-210)
 Smoke detectors (Am-241)
 Welding rods (Th-222)
 Television (low levels of X-rays)
 watches & other luminescent products

(tritium or radium)
 Gas lantern mantles
 Fiesta ware (Ur-235)
 Jewelry
 Smoke Detectors

Alpha particles from americium-241 (red lines) ionize the air

molecules (pink and blue spheres). The ions carry a small
current between two electrodes. Smoke particles (brown
spheres) attach to ions reducing current and initiate alarm.
 Research at Clarkson
Using Radiation Sources
 Radioactive Materials (both open and
sealed sources such as S-35, P-32, C-14, H-
3, Xe-133, Ra-226, Am-241)
 Gas Chromatographs (sealed sources)
 Liquid Scintillation Counters (sealed

sources for internal standards)

 X-ray Diffraction equipment
 Electron microscopes
 Medical
 Diagnostic
 X-rays
 Nuclear Medicine (Tc-99m, Tl-201, I-123)
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
 Therapeutic
 X-rays (Linear Accelerators)
 Radioisotopes
 Brachytherapy (Cs-137, Ir-192, Ra-226)
 Teletherapy (Co-60)
 Radiopharmaceuticals (I-131, Sr-89, Sm-153)
 Industrial Radiography

Use of high activity sealed sources to examine

structural components such as beams or pipes
Radiological Hazards
 Radiation Protection Basics
 Time: minimize the time that you are in contact
with radioactive material to reduce exposure
 Distance:keep your distance. If you double the
distance the exposure rate drops by factor of 4
 Shielding:
 Lead, water, or concrete for gamma & X-ray
 Thick plastic (lucite) for betas

 Protectiveclothing: protects against

contamination only - keeps radioactive material
off skin and clothes
 External Radiation
Inverse Square Law
Radiation levels decrease as the inverse square of the
distance (i.e. move back by a factor of two, radiation levels
drop to one fourth)
Applies to point sources (distance greater than 5 times the
maximum source dimension)
I 1 R 12  I 2 R 22
where I = Intensity (exposure rate) at position 1 and 2 and
R = distance from source for position 1 and 2
R2 I2 (mrem/hr)
Source I1 (mrem/hr)
R1 Position 2
Position 1
 Gamma Ray Constant
 Gamma Ray Constant to determine exposure rate
 (mSv/hr)/MBq at 1 meter
 Hint: multiply (mSv/hr)/MBq by 3.7

to get (mrem/hr)/uCi
 Exposure Rate Calculation, X (mrem/hr) at one meter:

X =
Where, A = Activity (Ci)
Gamma Ray Constant(mSv/hr)/Mbq
3.7 is the conversion factor
 Sample Calculation

5
Curie Cs-137 Source
Calculate Exposure Rate at 1 meter

 = 1.032 E-4 mSv/hr/MBq @ 1 meter

X = 1.032 E-4 * 3.7 * 5 Ci * 1000 mCi/Ci *

1000 uCi/mCi
X = 1909 mrem/hour
X = 1.91 rem/hour
 Gamma Ray Shielding
Effectiveness increases with
thickness, d (cm)
Variation with material, (1/cm)
 attenuation coefficients µ
 High Z material more effective

Water - Iron - Lead

good - better - best
 Shielding Beta Emitters
 Low energy betas (H-3, C-14, S-35) need no
shielding for typical quantities at Clarkson
 Higher energy beta emitters (P-32) should be

shielded
 Beta shielding must be low Z material (Lucite,

Plexiglas, etc.)
 High Z materials, like lead, can actually generate

radiation in the form of Bremsstrahlung X-rays

 Bremsstrahlung from 1 Ci of P-32 solution in

glass bottle is ~1 mR/hr at 1 meter

 Contamination and
Internal Hazards
Units of Measure
 activity/area (dpm/100 square cm)
Fixed vs Removable
Internal Hazards and Entry Routes
 Ingestion
 Inhalation - Re-suspension
 Skin absorption
 Wound Entry
 Protective Clothing
Can be a very effective means of preventing
skin, eyes, & clothing from becoming
contaminated
Gloves (may want double layer)
Lab Coat
Eyewear to prevent splashes and provide
shielding for high energy beta emitters
Closed toe footwear
It is much easier to remove contaminated
clothing than to decontaminate your skin!
 Contamination Control
 Watch out where you put your “hot” hands during
an experiment
 Monitor yourself and your work area frequently for

radioactivity (gloves, hands, feet, etc.)

 Use most sensitive scale on meter (X0.1 or X1)
 Have meter out and handy
 Make sure to wash your hands frequently and after

finishing an experiment
 Don’t bring radioactive material to lunch or to

your home!
 Monitor your work area before and after an

experiment
 Avoid Ingesting
Radioactive Material
Don’t bring hands or objects near your mouth
during an experiment
Eating, drinking, smoking, applying

cosmetics are strictly prohibited in

radioisotope use areas
Never mouth pipette
Never store personal food items in

refrigerators or freezers used for radioactive

material or other hazardous material storage
 Avoid Inhaling
Radioactive Material
Make sure you have proper ventilation for
your experiments
When using volatile materials such as

Iodine-125 and some Sulfur-35 compounds,

be sure to use a fume hood that has been
inspected and certified for proper airflow
 DAC's & ALI's
 DAC: Derived Air Concentration, an airborne
concentration of of radioactive material which if
inhaled for 2000 hrs per year will result in 5 rem
CEDE or 50 rem CDE.
 Units are uCi/cc
 Each DAC-hour gives 2.5 mrem of dose.
 ALI: Annual Limit on Intake, A quantity of radioactive

material, which if inhaled or ingested, would result in

the applicable annual dose limit.
 1 ALI = 5 rem (CEDE) or 50 rem (CDE)
 ALI and DAC Values listed for each nuclide in NHRCR

(He-P 4090)
 External vs Internal Dose
 TEDE: Total Effective Dose Equivalent
TEDE = DDE + CEDE
Total Dose = External Dose + Internal Dose

1 rem internal (CEDE) same as 1 rem external (DDE)

 Internaldose is protracted over several years but
calculated over 50 years and assigned in the year
of intake
Radiation Detection
 Radiation Detector Types
Gas Filled Detectors  Solid State Detectors
 Geiger Mueller (GM)
 Germanium Lithium
 Gas Flow Proportional
Counters High Purity
 Ionization  Silicone Lithium
 Silicone
Diode
ScintillationDetectors  Cadmium Telluride
 Sodium Iodide (NaI)
 Zinc Sulfide (ZnS)
 Anthracene
 Plastic Scintillators
 Gas Filled Detectors
 Ionizationdetectors
High Cost
Survey meters
Reference class calibration chambers
 Proportional counters
High cost
Gross laboratory measurements
Contamination monitors
 Geiger Mueller (GM) detectors
Low cost
Survey meters
Contamination monitors
 Scintillation Detectors
One of the Oldest Detection Methods, Still
Widely Used Today
Transducer Converts Radiation Energy to

Visible Light
Visible Light Signals Amplified With

Photomultiplier Tube
Output PM Tube Signal Processed
High Efficiency For Photon Detection

Compared To Gas-Filled Detectors

 Applications of
Scintillation Counting
Laboratory
 Liquid Scintillation Counters
 gross counting
 spectroscopy
 Quenching
Field
 Low Level Radiation Survey Instruments
 Thyroid monitoring for Iodine uptakes
 Use of Survey Instruments
Check Physical Condition
Cables, Connections, Damage
Check for Current Calibration (License

Requirement)
Battery Check
Zero Check
Response check prior to use
Select Proper Scale
Response Time (Fast or Slow?)
Audio (On or Off)
 CPM & DPM

A radiation detector will not detect every

disintegration from a source (i.e., they are
not 100% efficient)
 Counts per minute (cpm) is the number of

disintegrations that a detector “sees”

 The efficiency of a detector is determined

by the following:
Efficiency = net cpm / dpm
= gross cpm – background cpm /
dpm
 Regulatory Agencies
U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
 Regulates the nuclear industry pursuant to the
Atomic Energy Act
 Regulatory guides published to describe methods
for complying with regulations
Agreement States
 Some states have entered into an agreement
with the NRC to regulate by-product material
(and small quantities of source and special
nuclear material)
 Currently, 30 states are agreement states
including New York
 Radioactive Material at Clarkson
 Activities are licensed by the State of New York
 Radiation Safety Committee has responsibility to

review, approve, and oversee activities

 Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) runs program
 Clarkson is required to:
 Train individuals that use sources of radiation
 Train non-radiation workers that work in the

vicinity of radiation sources

 Monitor and control radiation exposures
 Maintain signs, labels, postings
 Manage and properly dispose of radioactive

waste
 Ordering & Receipt
of Radioactive Materials
 Only RSO is authorized to order radioactive material
 Use the Radionuclide Purchase Request Form
 Complete form and fax to RSO at 268-7118
 Be sure to state any special ordering instructions
(preferred delivery date, fresh batch, etc.)
 Packages are received by RSO, checked for
contamination, logged in, and delivered to the lab on
the same day as receipt
 Specific Radioactive Materials
 Tritium(Hydrogen-3)
 12.3 year half life
 Very low energy beta (0.0186 MeV max)
 No shielding needed
 Surveys by wipe method counted on LSC

 Carbon-14
 5730 year half life
 Low energy beta (0.156 MeV max)
 Shielding not needed
 Spot checks with GM are possible but

contamination surveys using wipes are necessary

 Specific Radioactive Materials
 Phosporous-32
 14.3 day half life
 High energy beta (1.710 MeV max)
 Shield with low Z material such as plastics
 Do not use lead shielding
 Wear safety glasses to shield eyes
 Ring badges are required for handling millicurie

quantities
 GM survey meter required
 Avoid handling containers for extended periods
Specific Radioactive Materials
 Sulfur-35
 87.4 day half life
 Low energy beta (0.167 MeV max)
 Same general precautions as for C-14
 Should be handled in a fume hood

 Nickel-63
 100.1 year half life
 Low energy beta (0.066 MeV max)
 Gas chromatographs with electron capture

detector cells
 No shielding needed
 Posting & Labeling Notices
 Posting
 New York Notice to
Employees form
 Caution Radioactive
Materials or X-Rays
 Labels
 All containers (unless exempt) must be labeled
 With “Caution – Radioactive Material”
 Should include radionuclide, quantity, date,
 initials, radiation levels, etc.
 Employee Rights
and Responsibilities
Right to report any radiation protection problem to
state without repercussions
Responsibility to comply with the Radiation
Protection Program and the RSO's instructions
pertaining to radiation protection
Right to request inspection
in writing
grounds for notice
signed
Responsibility to cooperate with NY State
inspectors during inspections and RSO during
internal lab audits
 Access Restriction
Required by License and NY Regulations
Security and Control of Radioactive Material

Unrestricted area

Controlled area

Unrestricted area Restricted Unrestricted area

area
 Security

Licensed RAM must be secured against

unauthorized removal at all times
Must maintain constant surveillance for any

radioactive material outside a restricted area

Lock labs containing radioactive material if

last one out - even if it’s “just for a minute”

Challenge all unknown individuals with “May

I help you?”
OK to ask for ID
Report to supervisor if suspicious
 ALARA

The goal of radiation protection is to keep

radiation doses As Low As Reasonably
Achievable
Clarkson is committed to keeping radiation
exposures to all personnel ALARA
What is reasonable?
Includes: -State and cost of technology
-Cost vs. benefit
-Societal & socioeconomic
considerations
 Safe Use of Sealed Sources
 Source sign out/in logs
 Physical inventories
 Leak Tests
Alpha sources every 3 months
Others every 6 months
 Lost, stolen, or damaged sources must be
reported to RSO
 May require notification of the State
 Surveys and Monitoring
 Clarkson Radiation Protection Program specifies
 Monitor all work areas at least once a week
 Instrument surveys and/or wipe surveys should be done after

each experiment or more often if needed

 Isotope storage area must be surveyed at least once per

month if no work is in progress

 Must keep records of all required surveys for inspection by

RSO and state inspectors

 Survey equipment calibration intervals (12 months)
 General Survey Information
 Randomly survey selected areas outside of normal radioisotope
use areas at least once a month to ensure there is no spread of
contamination
 Using a form with map of your lab on it is strongly

recommended to make documenting surveys easier

 Check wherever human hands and feet can go.
 A good rule of thumb for determining if contamination is

present is to look for 2X background

 Common contamination sites include soap/towel dispensers,

phones, chairs, desk tops, drawer and door handles, refrigerator

handles, pens and log books, and the survey meter itself
 Contamination Surveys
 Directmonitoring with a Geiger Mueller detector can
be performed when using P-32 and other high energy
beta or gamma emitters
 Wipe surveys for removable contamination must be
used for low energy beta emitters (H-3, C-14, S-35)
 Wipes are counted in a liquid scintillation counter
 Direct monitoring for low energy gamma emitters
should be done with a low energy gamma
scintillation probe (NaI crystal)
 Wipe Test Surveys
 Wear gloves
 Although a moistened swab or filter paper is more efficient, a

dry filter or soft absorbent paper be used

 Use uniform moderate pressure and wipe an area of at least 100

cm2 (about 4” X 4” or standard “S” swipe)

 Keep each wipe separate to avoid cross contamination
 Keep a record of the area wiped so that you know where the

contamination is located if the wipe comes up “hot”

 Place the wipe into a liquid scintillation vial, add cocktail, and

count according to manufacturer’s procedure or your lab specific

procedure
 Results should be in dpm/100 cm2
 Documenting Surveys
Contamination surveys must be documented
Record the following
 Date performed
 Areas surveyed (map is best)
 Results in dpm/100 cm2 or mR/hour as applicable
 Initials or name of surveyor
 Instrument used and date of calibration
 Action taken if contamination is found
 Be sure to document all post-spill clean up
surveys very well!
 Decay-In-Storage of Wastes
 Only for isotopes with half-lives less than 100 d
 Keep all isotopes separate
 Must keep an inventory with amount of activity
 Remove or obliterate all radioactive labels prior to
disposal
 Store in labeled receptacle with clear plastic liner
 Hold for 10 half-lives
 Survey with appropriate detector and confirm
indistinguishable from background
 Dispose of without regard to radioactivity
 Liquid Scintillation Waste
 Use “environmentally friendly” cocktail (water soluble)
 If tolulene/xylene based media must be used, keep
separate
 Must keep an inventory with amount of activity
 Keep LSC separate from other liquid wastes
 Store vials in flats, and check with RSO regarding
method of disposal
 Do not mix these with cocktails containing other
radioactive materials
 Liquid Waste Disposal
 Readily soluble or readily dispersable biological materials
in water may go down the drain if
 No other hazard is present
 The concentration does not exceed the allowable monthly
average concentration
 The total amount of radioactivity does not exceed 50
Ci/day
 The sink has been approved by the RSO and is
appropriately designated and labeled
 Must keep an inventory with amount of activity
 General Spill Procedure
 When cleaning up a spill, place absorbent material around the
edges of the spill and clean from the outside edges toward the
center to avoid spreading
 Place materials used to clean the spill into appropriate

radioactive waste containers

 Notify others in the lab of the spill to prevent inadvertent spread

of contamination
 After clean-up, monitor all work areas using survey meter or

wipe surveys, as applicable

 Survey your hands, feet, clothing and all other materials that

may have come in contact with the spilled material

 Minor Spills
 A minor spill is one that involves small quantities, low activities,
low energy, or low hazard radioactive materials that are confined
to a relatively small area
 Most spills that could occur in the lab would be minor and

should be cleaned up by lab personnel ASAP

 Use the general spill clean-up procedure and common sense
 You do not need to notify the RSO in the event of a minor spill
 Intermediate Spills
 An intermediate spill is one that involves larger quantities of
radioactive material spread over a larger area
 Intermediate spills could also involve small amounts of more
hazardous radioactive materials such as higher energy emitters
or volatile compounds
 A spill outside a restricted area may also be considered
intermediate since controlling the area may be difficult
 Use the general spill clean-up procedure and common sense
 Intermediate Spills (cont’d)
 Wear gloves, lab coats, dosimetry, and other protective clothing
 Confine the contamination
 Prevent the spread of contamination
 Use a survey instrument to check yourself for contamination

before leaving the area

 Pay special attention to hands and feet
 Restrict access to the spill area
 Inform others in the immediate area and post notice if necessary
 Contact the RSO (x6640) to report the situation
 Emergency Response
 Fire in radioactive areas:
Notify Fire Department and RSO, clear the area of

people. Remove any seriously wounded persons.

Keep your distance
 Theft of radioactive materials:
Notify RSO (info is posted on lab door)
State notification required
 Notify RSO if you suspect:
Inhalation, ingestion or other intake of radioactive

material
Accidental release of radioactive material into the

environment
 Inspections
Inspections
 NY shall be afforded opportunity to inspect
at all reasonable times
 Records shall be made available
 Inspector may consult with workers privately
 Worker may bring matters to inspector

privately
 Workers can request inspection
Mustbe in writing
Name is not revealed
 Internal Audits
 Internal audits by Clarkson RSO are performed in all labs
on campus
 Looking for same things as state inspector
 Security of radioactive materials - including waste
 Surveys for loose contamination
 Proper procedures in use
 Postings, container labeling, use of protective
clothing, dosimetry, survey meters, calibrations,
records of surveys, sink disposal logs, solid waste
container logs, etc.
 Your Role
in Radiation Protection

 Reportanything that looks out of the ordinary or if

you are uncertain about what to do, where to go,
requirements, exposures:
 Call the people on the emergency list
 Ask the Radiation Safety Officer (RSO)
Elayna Mellas
268-6640
emellas@clarkson.edu
 Acknowledgements
This training course has been adapted from
slides provided by Steve Backurz, Radiation
Safety Officer of The University of New
Hampshire