Diesel Engine Components

.
Bedplate, Framebox, etc.
The bedplate is made in one section, consisting of two welded, longitudinal girders and a
number of cross girders which support the main bearings.
The main bearings, which are of the thin-shell type, consist of steel shells, lined with Tin-Al

A frame-box is bolted on to the top of the bedplate. Like the bedplate, the frame-box consists of
one section with the chain drive located at the aft end. Together, the bedplate and the framebox
constitute the crankcase of the engine.

The frame-box is fitted with steel-plate doors for access to the crossheads, main & crankpin
brgs .
The bedplate, the frame-box, and the cylinder frame, which rests on top of the frame-box, are
tightened together to form one unit by means of stay bolts, the bottom of which is screwed into
the bedplate.
For each cylinder, the frame-box is equipped with a slotted pipe in which the piston cooling oil
outlet pipe fitted to the crosshead is able to travel. From the slotted pipe the cooling oil is,
through an outlet pipe, led to the oil tray of the bedplate.
The bedplate of the engine is positioned on either epoxy or cast iron supporting chocks
and bolted to the engine seating in the ship by means of long holding-down bolts, which
are equipped with distance tubes of cast iron.

Plate 91215 shows the holding-down bolts, which have spherical washers and nuts with
spherical contact face on the lower end of the bolts.
The contact faces of the top plate for the spherical washers must be plane.

The engine is secured in the athwartship direction by a number of side chocks fitted in both
sides in way of a bedplate cross girder.
The side-chock liners are tapered 1:100 and are fitted from the aft end at both sides of the
engine.
The side-chock liners are secured in their correct position by means of inside hexagon screws.

The engine is secured in the fore-and-aft direction by one end chock with one end chock
bolt with spherical washer at the aft end of each of the two longitudinal girders of the bedplate.

The end-chock liners have a 1 :100 taper and are fitted from above.
 Bedplates

The Bedplate is the foundation on which the 2 stroke

engine is built. It must be rigid enough to support
the weight of the engine, and maintain the
crankshaft, which sits in the bearing housings in
the transverse girders, in alignment. At the same
time it must be flexible enough to hog and sag
with the foundation plate to which it is attached
and which forms part of the ships structure.
 Bedplates
The main functions of the engine bedplate are as follows:
• The bedplate must be strong enough for providing rigid
support for the main bearings and crankshaft.
• It is the main platform for accurately mounting other
parts such as columns, frames and guides which support
engine cylinders, entablature and all working parts.
• In large engines, must withstand heavy fluctuating
stresses from operation of the engine and also transmit
the load over an area to the ship’s hull.
• Collect crankcase lubricating oil and return to drain tank
for further use.
 Bedplates
Forces applied to the bedplates:
• Firing load from cylinders.
• Side thrust from guide faces.
• Unbalanced inertia forces in the running gear.
• Weight of engine structure & running gear.
• Torque reaction from propeller.
• Hull deflections due to hogging, sagging, racking.
• Vibration due to torque variations, shock loading.
• Thermal stresses due to atmospheric and lubricating oil
temperature changes.
• Inertia & gyroscopic forces due to ship's movement in
heavy seas.
 Bedplates

In addition to withstanding forces due to the above

causes, the bedplate should provide:
• An oil tight chamber to contain the oil splash & spray
of the forced lubricating oil system.
• A drainage grid to filter out large particles before they
enter the oil sump or drain tank.
• A housing for the thrust bearing.

Having provided for all the above the bedplate should

also be small & light to keep the overall size and mass
of the engine to a minimum.
 Bedplates
Bedplates are made of :
Fabricated Mild Steel: Lightest bedplates, easy to repair,
but has the disadvantage of cracking at the weld
sections due to low vibration damping characteristics.
One piece Cast Iron: Normally only in small engines as it
is difficult to manufacture defect free large castings,
they are difficult to repair on board as cracks need to
be metalocked, and the material has low tensile
strength.
Composite materials: These have mild steel
longitudanals and cast steel transverse girders. Most
popular for a majority of modern engines.
No Painting Allowed on Bedplates.
 Bedplate Faults
Faults found in Bedplates: Cracks; Oil leaks; Loose chocks;
Loose ‘A’ frames.

Cracks usually occur: Under bearing pockets on fabricated

mild steel bedplates; Radially around tie bolt & frame
boltholes; Between longitudinal and transverse girders;
Around ‘lightening’ holes. At the base of serrated seating
for main bearing keeps.

Causes may be: Bearing wear & therefore overloading; Slack

tie bolts; Vibration; Poor welding or stress relieving; Stress
risers on welds - Coarse welds should be ground.
MAN Engine Bedplate:
 Operational Information
Holding Down and Chocking
•The Engine bedplate is mounted on chocks and is securely bolted to the engine
foundation plate on which it sits and which forms part of the structure of the hull.

•The engine must be securely fixed into the ship, which means:

- The engine must be bolted to a flat surface.

If  the surface was uneven, then when the bolts are tightened the bedplate would be
distorted, which in turn would distort the crankshaft, or its alignment, causing
unacceptable stresses to be set up when the engine is running.

- In a reciprocating engine, there are a lot of forces / moments / couples being

generated – some of which cannot be balanced completely…. This causes undue
vibrations / movements of the engine or parts which has to be limited or
restricted. At the same time we cannot have too rigid an engine.

•Both instances could cause damage / cracks and failures of the components.
 Operational Information
Holding Down and Chocking

•The Engine bedplate is mounted on chocks and is securely bolted to the engine foundation
plate on which it sits and which forms part of the structure of the hull.
•The engine must be securely fixed into the ship, which means:

- The engine must be bolted to a flat surface.

If  the surface was uneven, then when the bolts are tightened the bedplate would be distorted,
which in turn would distort the crankshaft, or its alignment, causing unacceptable stresses to be
set up when the engine is running.
- In a reciprocating engine, there are a lot of forces / moments / couples being generated –
some of which cannot be balanced completely…. This causes undue vibrations / movements
of the engine or parts which has to be limited or restricted. At the same time we cannot
have too rigid an engine.
•Both instances could cause damage / cracks and failures of the components
Operational Information
Holding Down and Chocking …. Contd

•The engine is coupled to the propeller to derive the propulsive force,

-the propeller tries to push or thrust the propeller shaft and engine crankshaft forward into the
ship. The thrust bearing which is situated at the aft end of the engine transmits this thrust from
the crankshaft to the bedplate. Thereby resulting in the forward motion of the ship.
•The Engine must also be lined up with the propeller shaft, in proper alignment at all times.. Any
misalignment can cause bending stresses leading to cracks and damages to the shafting system,

Alignment :
•Before the engine is bolted down it is supported on jacks whilst it is aligned with the tail- shaft
bearing.
• This can be done by the piano wire method, or by modern techniques using laser, Optical
methods etc..
 Holding Down Bolts & Chocks

• The holes in the Tank top are screw cut and the
studs are screwed down until the conical face at the
lower end of the enlarged part of the stud seats on
the tank top to form a water tight joint with a
grommet

• Once the engine is supported by the chocks the jacks

are removed and the holding down bolts are
tightened using a hydraulic tensioner to stretch the
bolts.
 Holding Down Bolts & Chocks
• Holding down bolts should be checked regularly for
tightness. If they are allowed to come loose, then the
mating surfaces will rub against each other and wear
away in a process known as fretting. If this continues
and the bolts are subsequently tightened down, the
bedplate (and main bearings) will be pulled out of
alignment.

• Side chocks are fitted to prevent the engine from

moving sideways due to the movement of the vessel or
because of the sideways component of thrust from the
reciprocating and rotating parts.
 Traditional holding down bolt arrangement

Modern holding down bolt and chock

 Checking Holding Down Bolts
A Classification society requirement is for checking
Holding-down bolts for tightness by a Surveyor,
within each survey cycle. This interval of time may
be too long and the bolts should preferably be
checked at 6-monthly intervals. In new vessels,
the bolts should be checked within one month of
the commencement of the maiden voyage, or
earlier if possible. After a vessel has been through
bad weather, the bolts should be checked as soon
as possible.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts
A rough method of checking Holding-down bolts is the
hammer test. If a holding-down bolt is of the fitted
type, this test cannot be used, and a hydraulic jack
must be used. Due to the presence of bilge water on
the tank top at various times, the holding-down
bolt nuts may rust and seize on the studs. In this
case, the seized condition makes it seem as if the
nut is tight. The hammer testing method, however,
can be used in finding slack nuts, even when they
are seized on a stud.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts
Action to be taken if a number of holding-down
bolts are found to be slack:
• When chocks and their mating surfaces on the
bedplate and tank top have fretted, the chocks
cannot properly support the engine. If the bolts
are tightened, the crankshaft alignment may be
seriously affected, with lesser effects being felt on
crosshead guide and cylinder alignment. The
seriousness of the situation will be depend on the
amount of fretting that has occurred.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts

Before any tightening of the Holding-down bolts is carried

out, the Alignment of the crankshaft should be checked,
by taking deflections with a dial gauge.

If the crankshaft alignment is satisfactory, the slack chocks

can be removed and smoothed on the mating surfaces
and then replaced. The bolts can then be retightened, to
harden the chock. After all the bolts and chocks have
been tightened, the crankshaft alignment must be
rechecked
 Checking Holding Down Bolts
Resin Chocking
Steel chocking has the disadvantages that each block must
be individually fitted, a time consuming process, and
after fitting are susceptible to fretting and wear. Resin
chocks are poured and therefore are much quicker to
apply. They form into the shape of the clearance and
flow into surface imperfections. This reduces damage
due to fretting and removes bending moments on the
holding down bolts.

The disadvantage is that the resin creation must be precise

and that it is less straight forward to replace in the event
of damage or misalignment.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts
Inspection requirement pertaining to holding down
bolts and engine chocks.

Holding down bolts are strained while in service and

thus required to be tightened up occasionally. Even
the most imperceptible movement of the bedplate
will cause fretting to occur on the bedded mating
surfaces of the bedplate, chock and foundation plates.
If fretting occurs in areas covering a number of
adjacent chocks, the crankshaft may be seriously
damaged through misalignment.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts

New installations should have the bolts checked after

a few running hours and at least every six months
after that. A record should be kept. These holding
down bolts should be checked fully if the vessel had
met with an accident, such as grounding near
engine room, fire in engine room or near the engine
room and/or collision.
 Checking Holding Down Bolts
Bedplate Inspection:

1. Cracks
2. Faulty welding - on new engines (under cutting, blow holes,
slag etc.).
3. Faulty castings - porosity, blowholes, inclusions etc.
4. Corrosion.
5. Cleanliness - sludge and carbon build up in corners, under
bearings, cover studs.
6. Loose connections - bolted transverse girders, A-frames, oil
pipes, chocks and holding down bolts.
7. Oil leakage
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
Frames are used to support the cylinder block in most
two stroke main propulsion engines. They are called
‘A’ Frames, because they resemble the letter 'A' in
shape. They are fitted at each transverse girder,
starting from the ends.
• Frames were earlier made of cast iron and made
hollow to reduce the weight. They were sandwiched
between bedplate and cylinder block by tie bolts,
which left them in compression.
• The frames were later fabricated from mild steel tube
and plate. Cast Iron guides were bolted on the frames.
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
• This arrangement used individual frames at each
cross girder position.
• The spaces between the frames along the length of
the engine are fitted with plates bolted to the
frames.
• This type of structure is strong transversely, but has
comparatively little flexibility longitudinally. Heavy
covers or longitudinal stiffeners are to be used to
make side covers oil-tight.
• This would be a weak structure to withstand a
crankcase explosion.
M.A.N. Engine Bedplate, Lower frame, Upper frame and Cylinder jacket
Transverse section of
Sulzer Engine, showing
all internal bolts and
fittings
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
• When lowering the A frame onto the bedplate, a small
amount of jointing compound is used to ensure an oil
tight joint. When the frames are aligned on the bed
plate they are secured together by drilling and
reaming and using fitted bolts.
Guides in the crosshead type engine
• These guides are fitted to crosshead engines and are
vertical sliding bearings which locate and maintain
alignment of the crosshead over the whole length of
the engine stroke.
• They are subjected to fluctuating load from the
transverse components of the connecting rod reaction.
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
• Guide bars or surfaces are secured to the frame
adjacent to the unit and have either cast iron or steel
bearing surfaces.
• Guide slippers (or shoes) are attached to the ends of
the crossheads and may be free to articulate: they
are white metal lined with oil grooves lubricated
from the crosshead.
• Guide clearances must be checked periodically and
should not exceed 0.7 mm for a large engine.
• Excess clearance will cause noise, wear on bearings
and glands, uneven loads and fatigue.
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
• The entablature, A-frames and bedplate are held
together by long tie-bolts that transmit the
combustion load from the tops of the cylinder
down to the bedplate cross-members. The tie-bolts
are hydraulically tightened to pre-stress the
structure, maintaining the engine structures in
compression. Bracing screws are located at the
length of the bolts to reduce the vibrations.
 Engine Construction - Frames & Tie-rods
• To prevent excessive bending moments in the transverse
girders, the tie bolts are positioned as close to the centre
of the crankshaft as possible. Because the tie bolts are so
close to the crankshaft, some engines employ jack bolts to
hold the crankshaft main bearing cap in position instead
of conventional studs and nuts.
• For new engines it is recommended that all tie rods be
checked for correct pretension after the first year of
service and if necessary pre-tensioned to the value
specified. After that it is sufficient to make random checks
during major overhaul. The bolts should be checked
approximately every 4000 to 6000 running hours.
Effects of Operating an Engine with Loose Tie Bolts
• Operating the engine with loose tiebolts will cause the
fitted bolts holding the bedplate, frame and entablature
in alignment to stretch and break.
• The machined mating surfaces will rub together, corrode
and wear away (this is known as fretting).
• Once this has happened the alignment of the engine
running gear will be destroyed.
• Loose tie bolts will also cause the transverse girders to
bend which could lead to cracking, and main bearing
misalignment.
• Once fretting between the mating surfaces has occurred,
then tightening of the tie bolts will pull the engine out of
alignment.
Effects of Operating an Engine with Loose Tie Bolts
• The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner, and the
stuffing box will no longer be in line and excessive
wear will occur.
• Because the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down
squarely they will be subject to forces which may
lead to them breaking.
• If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to
remove the entablature or/and frame and machine
the fretted mating surfaces (a very costly exercise).
• To reduce the risk of breaking they must be checked
for tightness; not over tightened.
Effects of Operating an Engine with Loose Tie Bolts
• Cylinder beam would flex and lift at the location of the
slack bolt landing faces of the upper and lower nuts,
landing faces of the cylinder beam on the frame would
fret and machined faces would eventually get destroyed.
The fitted bracing bolts between the cylinder jackets will
also slacken and the fit of the bolts would be lost.

• If fretting has occurred in an uneven pattern where the

cylinder beam lands, and the tie bolts are tightened, the
alignment of cylinder to the piston stroke will be
destroyed. The fitted bracing bolts between the cylinder
jackets will also slacken and fit of the bolts will be lost.
Effects of Operating an Engine with Loose Tie Bolts
• Fretting may make the nut landing face out of square and if
tie bolts are tightened on the damaged face, a bending
moment will be induced in the tie bolt, this may cause an
uneven stress pattern in the tie bolt which could lead to
early fatigue failure. Damage may take place in the
bedplate in way of cross girder.

• Rigidity of the whole structure will be destroyed. Guide

force will have to be absorbed by the frame bolts and
dowels, which may stretch and slacken allowing the
structure to ‘work’. This may destroy the piston alignment.
Guide faces and bars may get slackened (these are bolted
to the supporting structure).
 Structural Faults

• Cracks: Cracks can occur around bolt-holes, or where the

stress pattern is complex. The most likely places for
inspection to detect cracks are:
– Behind the guides.
– Around main bearing pockets.
– All junction welds.
– Securing bolts and dowels between bedplate and
frame, frame and cylinder.
– Around guide securing bolts.
 Structural Faults
Loose Bolts: Tie bolts keep the engine structure under
compression throughout the cycle and the structure is
designed accordingly. Tie bolts may get slackened and if
the slackening is considerable, the structure will not
remain under compression during combustion. The guide
force will have to be taken up by the frame bolts and
dowels. This could be high enough to stretch and slacken
the bolts and this would allow the structure to "work".
Bolts holding the guide faces and bars to the supporting
structure may also get slackened. This may seriously
affect the piston alignment. Fretting would take place at
the landing faces of all the parts held together
 Structural Faults

• Misalignment: Alignment of the whole structure

(assembly) is of extreme importance. The initial
alignment may be carried out by a plumb line from
crossed laths on the top of the liner, frame is adjusted
until the plumb line lies evenly in a hole through lath,
which is mounted between frame positions. Fitted bolts
or clear bolts and dowels now secure the frame. Now the
liner and guide alignment is carried out by piano wire,
calipers/micrometers.
 Structural Faults
• Misalignment may occur due to:
– Settling of the structure.
– Fire.
– Grounding, collision.
– Cracking of frames.
– Distortion of bedplate.
• Indications of misalignment:
– Overheated bearings.
– Overheated guide slippers.
– Uneven wear of liner.
– Piston slapping.
– Excessive vibration.
– Wear of stuffing box, piston rod.
 Cylinder Liner & Jacket
Liners are made of ‘Pearlitic Grey Cast Iron’ with the
following alloying materials:
• Carbon: 3 to 3.4%. Its graphite flakes assist
lubrication.
• Silicon: 1 to 2.0%. Improves fluidity and graphite
formation.
• Manganese: 0.6 - 0.8%
• Phosphorous: 0.5% maximum. Reduces porosity
• Vanadium: 0.15%. Refines grain structure
• Titanium: 0.05%. Improves strength
 Cylinder Liner & Jacket

Reasons for using Cast Iron:

• Can be cast into intricate shapes. 

• Has good wear resistance:
• Due to semi-porous surface can retail oil pockets.
• Possesses good thermal conductivity.
• Damps out vibrations due to rapid combustion.
• Cheap material.
 Cylinder Liner & Jacket
The reasons for manufacturing the liner separately
from the cylinder block (jacket) in which it is located
are as follows:
• The liner can be manufactured using a superior
material to the cylinder block. The alloying elements
in the liner material, help resist corrosion and
improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.
• The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore
may have to be replaced. The cylinder jacket lasts
the life of the engine.
• At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter
than the jacket. The liner will expand more and is
free to expand diametrically and lengthwise.
 Cylinder Liner & Jacket
• The Liner will tend to get very hot during engine
operation as the heat energy from the burning fuel is
transferred to the cylinder wall. To keep the
temperature within acceptable limits the liner is cooled.
• The liner must be gauged regularly to establish the wear
rate and check that it is within manufacturers
tolerances. Excessive wear is caused by lack of
lubrication, impurities in fuel, air, or Lubricating oil, bad
combustion and acid attack.
• Max wear is 1% of the diameter. Average liner wears @
0.1mm/1000 hrs
Types of Cylinder Liners:

Cylinder Liner: Engine: Cooling Medium:

Wet Type: Slow and Medium Speed Cooled by Cooling Water.
Engines
Dry Type. Small Engines Air Cooled (Finned liners
used)
 Bore Cooled Liners
• To increase the power of the engine for a given
number of cylinders, either the efficiency of the
engine must be increased or more fuel must be
burnt per cycle.
• To burn more fuel, the volume of the combustion
space must be increased, and the mass of air for
combustion must be increased.
• Because of the resulting higher pressures in the
cylinder from the combustion of this greater mass
of fuel, and the larger diameters, the liner must be
made thicker at the top to accommodate the
higher hoop stresses, and prevent cracking of the
material. 
 Bore Cooled Liners
• If the thickness of the material is increased, then it
stands to reason that the working surface of the liner is
going to increase in temperature because the cooling
water is now further away.
• Increased surface temperature means that the
material strength is reduced, and with the oil film
burnt away, results in excessive wear and increased
thermal stressing.
• Bore cooling reduces the distance of the cooling
medium from the point of highest temperature
thereby improving cooling at the hottest part of the
liner.
 Liner Cooling
The cylinder liner is of special close grain cast iron. It is
fresh water-cooled and the division bars between
the exhaust ports are hollow and also water-cooled.
In order to reduce the thermal stresses of the
cylinder liners, particularly for the really large bore
engines; the bore cooling system has been applied
in the upper part of the cylinder liner. This is a
system of holes drilled tangentially at an oblique
angle into the liner wall so that the cooling water is
led as close as possible to the hot liner wall, thus
the temperature of the running surface is reduced.
 Liner Cooling

The cold part of the cylinder outside the bores is

relatively thick and embraces the inner portion like
a shrunk-on ring and so reduces the pulsating
stresses caused by the gas pressure. The cooling
water is collected in the water guide ring and let out
of the cylinder cover.
 Liner Wear

The main causes of cylinder liner wear may be broadly

classified as follows:

Normal frictional wear: Caused by metal-to-metal

contact under boundary lubrication conditions. This
may be aggravated by oil with inadequate load
carrying properties, too low a viscosity or an
inadequate oil supply.
 Liner Wear

Abrasive wear: Caused by hard foreign matter

introduced with the induction air and by hard particles
of carbon, asphalt, wear debris and ash forming
constituents present either in the fuel or lubricating
oil. Frictional and abrasive wear are often linked
together under the general description of abrasive
wear. To minimize this type of wear t/c air filters must
be kept clean, keep scavenge space clean, effective
centrifuging of fuel oil, fuel pump and injector in good
condition, fuel timing correct and keeping the fuel
temperature correct thus achieving good combustion.
Corrosive wear: Caused by acidic products of
combustion, especially condensed sulphur oxides. This is
especially troublesome when burning high sulphur
content residual fuels. This H2SO4 in dilute condition
causes all the damage. The dew point of this acid is
around 110*C to 180*C depending on concentration.
This temperature condition does exist in the liner face so
results in corrosion. To minimise this corrosive wear one
should use alkaline based cylinder oils. Fuel with 4 to 5%
sulphur should use oil with a TBN of 70. Fuel with 1%
sulphur should use oil with 20 to 30 TBN. If either the
feed rate or the TBN number is not correct for that
amount of sulphur content in the fuel, a particular wear
pattern will occur in the liner, generally termed as
‘Clover Leafing’.
Reasons for the above type of wear:

Insufficient oil supply;

Inadequate TBN oil;
Failure of oil distribution in liner face;
Jacket cooling water temperature too low;
Turbo-charger air cooler not properly controlled.
Supplying cold air to scavenge space;
Jacket cooling water outlet temperature low,
keeping the liner surface temperature around dew
point of the acid.
Scuffing wear:

Scuffing wear occurs when lubricant oil film fails to separate

the ring face from the liner face and subsequent contact
occurs while operating, frictional heat is generated to such
an extent that ‘Micro-welding’ or ‘Micro-seizer’ takes place.

The reasons for this is as follows:

Liner surface too smooth therefore retains too little oil on its
face.
Water on surface of the liner repelling the oil film formation.
Blow by of combustion gases across the ring sealing face
breaking the oil film formation.
Poor oil distribution on the liner surface by the quills and/or
the gutter groves.
Deposit on piston top landing absorbing the lubricating oil.
Liner Wear Pattern:

Maximum normal wear occurs at the top of the liner in

a Port-Starboard direction and around scavenge ports.
The reasons are:
High temperature prevalent at the top dead center
reduces oil viscosity and therefore oil thickness.
High gas pressure increases ring loading causing failure
of oil film.
Slow movement of piston allows oil wedge to break
down (Reversal of piston movement).
Slow speed movement of the engine is maximum while
entering and leaving Port.
High temperature makes oil film less resistant to acid
penetration.
 Liner Faults

1. Crack across liner flange due to uneven and excessive tightening of cylinder cover
studs.
2. Hoop stress crack due to poor liner support.
3. Circumferential crack along wear ridge due to stress concentration or more likely
new rings hitting ridges.
4. ‘Star’ or ‘Craze’ cracks caused by flame impingement.
5. Star cracks around lubricating quill due to water leaks.
6. Cracks across port bars due to over loading, poor cooling, scavenge fire, poor
fitting of liner in its position and usage of wrong ‘O’ rings on the liner.
Causes of Excessive Wear
When excessive wear of piston rings and cylinder liner
occurs, the cause is usually one or more of the following
factors:
1.Improper running in. Misalignment of the pistons, or
distortion of cylinders, preventing bedding-in of pistons
and cylinders.
2.Inadequate oil supply, or unsatisfactory arrangements
for lubricant type and quality.
3.Lubricating oil too low in viscosity, or too low in
alkalinity (TBN).
4.Piston ring clearances incorrect.
5.Unsuitable cylinder liner material or unsuitable piston
ring material or hardness factor between ring material
and liner material not compatible.
6. Contamination of lubricating oil, by extraneous
abrasive material.
7. Cylinder wall temperatures too high or too low.
8. Overloading the engine.
9. Scavenge air temperature too low, especially in humid
climates.
10. Inefficient combustion, promoting deposit formation
& degradation of the lub. oil.
Use of a low-sulphur fuel (<1%) in conjunction with
highly TBN cyl.oil - this particular fuel/lub combination
is not necessarily harmful as cylinders wear due to acidic
wear and/or scuffing. But it may leave a balance of
alkaline salts which due to heat will form abrasive
material and mixing with lubricating oil will score the
liner leading to wear.
 Requirements of a cylinder liner/rings lubricant
1. It must reduce sliding friction between rings and liner to a
minimum, thereby minimising metal-to-metal contact and
frictional wear.
2. It must possess adequate viscosity at high working
temperatures and still be sufficiently fluid to spread rapidly
ever the entire working surface to form a good absorbent oil
film.
3. It must form an effective seal in conjunction with the piston
rings, preventing ‘blow-by’ burning away of the oil film and
lack of compression.
4. It must burn cleanly, leaving as little and as soft a deposit
possible. This is especially true of high additive content oils as
unsuitable types can form objectionable ash deposits.
5. It must effectively prevent the built-up of deposits in
the ring zone and in the parts of port exhausted 2-stroke
engines.
6. It must effectively neutralize the corrosive effects of
numerous acids formed during combustion of the fuel.

For two-stroke engine one quill fitted per 300 mm

circumference or less. Total per cylinder is about 6 to 10.

Best position for the quill in line with 1st and 2nd ring
position with the piston at the TDC.
Lubrication is difficult to achieve because:

1. Piston direction changes every stroke.

2. In two stroke engine no non-working stroke.
3. In diaphragm engine no oil is returned. Therefore
supply is limited and consumption is controlled. So
no cooling effect for the liner.
4. Piston and rings distort due to gas pressure and
temperature.
5. All fuels contain abrasive contaminants.
6. Liner temperature (working surface) varies causing
change in viscosity.
Maximum Liner wear rate
mm/1000 hours.
↑

Maximum Cylinder Liner Wear Rate/ Engine Running Hours

Feed rate increase above
Normal Maximum.
↑

→ Running Hours.→

Cylinder Liner Running in Method No: 1: Cylinder oil feed rate

adjustment during running in
Cylinder Liner running method No: 2: Progressive Increase of
Engine Speed and Cylinder Lubricating Oil Alkalinity during
running in Period:
 Effects of Undercooling & Cylinder Lubrication
• On some large bore, long stroke engines it was found that
the lower part of the liner was getting undercooled. This is
not good as the hydrogen in the fuel combines with the
oxygen and burns to form water. Normally this is in the
form of steam, but the cold liner will cause it to condense
on the liner surface and wash away the lube oil film.
• Fuels also contain sulphur. This burns in the oxygen and
the products combine with the water to form sulphuric
acid. If this condenses on the liner surface (below 140º)
then corrosion can take place.
• One solution is to insulate the outside of the liner so that
there was a reduction in the cooling effect. On the latest
engines the liner is only cooled at the very top.
 Effects of Undercooling & Cylinder Lubrication
• Once the oil film has been destroyed then wear will take place at
an alarming rate.
• Cylinder lubrication: Because the cylinder is separate from the
crankcase there is no splash lubrication as on a trunk piston
engine. Oil is supplied through drillings in the liner. Grooves
machined in the liner from the injection points spread the oil
circumferentially around the liner and the piston rings assist in
spreading the oil up and down the length of the liner.
• The oil is of a high alkalinity which combats the acid attack from
the sulphur in the fuel.
• The latest engines time the injection of oil using a programme
which has inputs from the crankshaft position, engine load and
engine speed. The correct quantity of oil can be injected by
opening  valves from a pressurized system, just as the piston ring
pack is passing the injection point.
 Cylinder Head
• It forms upper part of the combustion chamber. It covers and
seals the cylinder liner top so as to make a confined space in
which to compress the air and to confine the gases while they
are burning and expanding. It is therefore exposed to high
mechanical and thermal loads.
In 4-stroke engines sufficient penetrations must be made in the
cover to house:
• Inlet & exhaust valves.
• Fuel valve or valves.
• Air Starting Valve.
• Relief valve.
• Indicator cock.
• This makes the cover complicated and it is therefore usually
cast.
In order to avoid high thermal loads good cooling is
needed and this in turn demands thin metal sections.
To achieve optimum strength and reduce temperature
stresses is very difficult and therefore cylinder covers
are prone to failure. The biggest problem area is
between the valve and fuel injector pockets, and this
is the most likely area for cracks to occur.

Improvements in design include:

1. Water-cooled valve cages are used, particularly for
the exhaust valve.
2. Separate sleeves for fuel valves are screwed &
rolled into the cover.
The first gives more direct cooling as the full flow of
jacket-cover coolant is directed through spaces
adjacent to the seat and stem and the ease of removal
allows more frequent overhauling. The latter are an
advantage as the sleeve can expand and contract
within the cover reducing the total stresses and being
of thin section occupy little space so that an adequate
water flow can be arranged between the valve pocket
and the exhaust valve.
A further improvement is the use of four valves (2
inlet valves and 2 exhaust valves). These allow more
room for the central fuel valve, provide longer areas
for gas flow and reduce valve inertia. They increase
the complexity of the cover however.
Major advantages of bore cooling system cover
design are:

1. Extremely low valve seat temperatures and

excellent temperature distribution.
2. Extremely large stiffness resulting in valve seats
with considerably improved sealing properties and
low dynamic stresses.
3. With the above properties, the valve overhaul
intervals even with low quality fuel service will
certainly be greatly increased.
Two Stroke Engine:

In a 2-stroke cycle more heat is liberated in the

cylinder in a given time than with the 4-stroke engine,
consequently cooling is more important. However
fewer penetrations occur in the cover because no air
inlet valves are fitted and in loop-scavenged engines
no exhaust valves either.
Because the heat stresses are greater, a simpler cover
cast alloy steel can be used. To further improve the
arrangement a 2-part cover can be used.
 Cylinder Head
Normally manufactured from spheroidal graphite or
nodular cast iron which is easy to cast. Although
not as strong as cast steel, which is difficult to cast
into complex shapes due to its poor fluidity, it
maintains a reasonable strength under load.
Adequate cooling is essential to prevent thermal
fatigue due to uneven expansion throughout the
casting, and bore cooling has been introduced
along with cooling spaces to ensure effective
cooling of the "flame plate" (the underside of the
cylinder head which forms the top of the
combustion chamber).
The cylinder cover must be able to withstand gas loads
with tends to deform its shape. Cast iron is not good at
withstanding bending stresses.
Cracking of cylinder heads can occur due to poor
cooling causing thermal fatigue. Poor cooling can be
the result of scale build up within the cooling spaces
due to inadequate water treatment. Overloading of
the unit causing high peak pressures is also a cause as
is incorrect tightening down of the cylinder head.
Cracking normally occurs between the valve pockets
and/or cooling water spaces. Cracked cylinder heads
can be repaired by specialised welding; but this must
be done under the guidance and with authorisation
from the classification societies.
 Defects in Cylinder Covers

1. Cracking:

Generally occur around the fuel valve pocket or

between the fuel and exhaust valve pocket. They
are caused by overheating, casting strains or notch
effects (particularly in 2–stroke cast covers). Cracks
can be repaired by chain studding for temporary
repair, ‘Metalock’ for a semi-permanent repair or by
welding if the material is suitable.
2. Burning: Due to flame impingement. Repair is by
welding if the material is suitable.
3. Distortion: Due to uneven tightening down of the
cylinder cover over the liner face, overheating of
cylinder cover (particularly if scale is present) or
unrelieved casting strains. It causes liner joint leakage
and or liner flange cracking.
4. Deposits: Scale & silt due to poor quality water or
contaminated water. Not usually found when distilled
water is used.
5. Corrosion: Due to inadequate or nonexistent water
treatment.
 Crankshafts
• Crankshafts for large 2 stroke crosshead engines are of
the semi built type. In this method of construction the
crankshaft "throws" consisting of two webs and the
crankpin are made from a single forging of a 0.4%
carbon steel. The webs are bored to take the separately
forged and machined main journals which are fitted into
the webs using the shrink fitting method. The shrink fit
allowance is between 1/570 and 1/660 of the diameter.
• The advantages of this method of construction is that by
making the two webs and crankpin from a single forging
the grain flow in the steel follows the web round into
the crankpin and back down the other web.
 .

• In a Forging the deformed crystal structure produces a

grain flow, which can be oriented in a particular direction.
It is arranged that the grain flow is a continuous path
through the journal, web and pin, in the direction of the
shaft polar axis. Discontinuity of the grain flow should be
avoided (Fatigue resistance).
• Because the crankpin and webs are a single forging, the
webs can be reduced in thickness and a hole is sometimes
bored through the crankpin, reducing its weight without
compromising strength.
• Reference marks are provided at each shrink fit by
machining a flat rectangular surface across the junction. A
light chisel cut is made radially across the junction of the
web and pin or web and journal. These should be
inspected regularly to ensure no slip has occurred.
The Welded Crankshaft

The welded crankshaft was developed in the 1980s. It

was made up of a series of forgings each comprising of
half a main journal, web, crankpin, second web, and
half a main journal. These forgings were then welded
together using a submerged arc welding process to
form the crankshaft. After welding the journals were
stress relieved and machined. As well as having the
advantage of  continuous grain flow, the webs could be
made thinner (no shrink fit to accommodate), leading
to a lighter shorter crankshaft. This method is very
expensive but has shown very good results in service.
Welding, was an ideal alternative since the weld
would be positioned right in the middle of the
bearing journals where the stresses on the
crankshaft are lowest. To make welding practical,
the level of residual stresses and distortion must be
known and low; the weld zone must be as strong as
the unheated metal and easy to test.
Preliminary and experimental studies led to the
conclusion that a narrow-gap with low heat input,
combined with submerged-arc welding, would be
the most suitable method. Stresses were
measured by strain gauges on a scaled-down steel
crank-throw to check the results of the
calculations. Metallurgical investigation showed
that any of the tested materials, from normalised
low-carbon manganese steel to hardened and
tempered low-alloy Cr/Mb steel, could be welded
with the submerged arc welding, narrow-gap
process, given a sufficiently high pre-heating and
interpass temperature.
Fatigue testing of full-sized specimens showed properties
superior to the base material. Dynamic fracture testing
showed that, if a fatigue fracture was already present, the
growth per number of cycles was the same as in the base
material.

Advantages of welded crankshafts: Reduced principal

dimensions: cylinder distance, total engine length, width of
bedplate, and height of engine, including space necessary
for piston overhaul, also, machining and other expensive
processes, can be reduced. The solid welded crankshaft
represents a considerable reduction in weight, due to the
absence of shrink-fits, and freedom to choose large journal
diameters without overlap restrictions. This means
crankshafts with higher natural frequencies of torsional
vibrations, which is important in slow-speed engines.
 Crankshaft
• Fillet Radii :

• At the change of section between journal and

web and web and crankpin, fillet radii are
machined so there is not a sharp corner to act as
a stress raiser. These radii are cold rolled to
remove machining marks, harden the surface
and to induce a residual compressive stress,
again to increase fatigue resistance.
Oil Holes in Crankshafts : Unlike the crankshafts for slow
speed 2 stroke crosshead engines, which lubricate the
bottom ends by sending the oil DOWN the con rod from
the crosshead, the crankshaft for the medium speed
trunk piston engine must have holes drilled in it so that
oil can travel from the main bearing journals to the
crankpin and then UP the con rod to lubricate the piston
pin and cool the piston. If the surface finish of the holes
is not good, then cracks can start from the flaws.
At the exit points on the crankpin, the holes must be
smoothly radiused. So that the crankshaft strength is
not compromised the holes should be positioned
horizontally when the crank is at TDC.
Stresses in crankshafts:

The major stresses are produced from four sources:

1. The working cycle: These are imposed by the connecting
rod and include gas pressure forces plus inertia forces from
piston, connecting rod and crosshead assembly.
2. Torsional vibration: Caused by the crankshaft winding up
and unwinding in the reverse direction due to non-uniform
applied torque from the engine and resisting torque from
propeller.
3. Axial vibration: Drive from the crankshaft being
alternatively extended and compressed along its axis due to
bending of pins, webs and journals.
4. Misalignment: From improperly adjusted or damaged
bearings or from inadequate foundation for the bedplate.
Regions of high stress:
High stresses normally arise from stress
concentrations at discontinuities along the shaft.

They may be found in two regions:

Around oil holes in pins and journals: Caused by
torsional shear stress which results in cracks at 45* to
the shaft axis. Edges need to be well rounded with a
high surface finish. The position of the oil hole
relative to the crank throw should be carefully
considered.
Around the fillets : Due to bending or combined
bending and twisting. The crack may develop into
both the pin and web. The fillet radii should be at
least 0.05% of the pin diameter. Cold rolling, of
the fillets is sometimes employed to increase
fatigue resistance by introducing residual
compression stress in the fibers.
Careful choice of pin diameter to web thickness
and counter-boring of the pin in way of the shrink
fit can improve stress distribution across the
discontinuity.
Where journals or pins are surface hardened it should :

Stop short of the fillet radius so that no discontinuity exists in the

fillet itself.
The hardened surface should carry right through the fillet.
 
Chrome plating is some times used as a reconditioning
procedure, particularly in solid shafts and may be applied to new
shafts when used with modern fatigue resistant bearing metals
(lead-copper-aluminium - tin), which provide less conformability
and embed ability than white metal.
The chrome plating produces a smooth, hard surface but is more
difficult to lubricate under boundary conditions. Some materials
used for journals and pins can develop fatigue cracks originating
at the interface between the parent metal and the chromium
coating.
 Important Factors Affecting Crankshaft Life:

1. If webs are flame cut, this should preferably be done

hot. Crack detection before and after shrinkage is
necessary.
2. Edges of crank-webs should be well rounded off.
3. Great care has to be taken of discontinuities in the
shaft such as fillets, oil grooves, oil holes etc. Fillets
should have proper radius. Oil holes should be
machined smooth and lips should be well rounded.
4. Material should be in optimum condition both as
regards soundness and fatigue strength.
5. Surface hardening by the ‘Nitriding’ process
increases fatigue strength. Hardening will reduce rate
of wear, but the process has to be done carefully.
6. Proper care has to be taken of the bedplate as
regards designing and maintenance.
Distorted/Cracked bedplate has been the cause of
crankshaft failures in several cases due to
misalignment.
7. Crankshaft alignment has to be maintained in
the specified limit at all times.
8. In the presence of water (form piston cooling or
other system leakage) Crankshafts can severely
corrode with consequent adverse effect on fatigue
life. The necessary precautionary measures should
be taken.
9. Web "Breadth/Thickness" ratio, have to be
maintained in the specified range.
Problems:
If the shrink fit between journals and web slips,
possibly caused by abrupt stopping of shaft, 2 or 3
degrees can possibly be tolerated. The shaft may be
realigned by removing running gear and main bearings,
in way of the damage, to provide good access.
By circulating liquid nitrogen at controlled rate through
the journal and applying uniform heat across the web,
the shrink fit can be relaxed, using two hydraulic jacks,
suitably placed (one to provide turning moment in
opposite direction to slip and the other providing shaft
control) the web can be re-moved relative to the
journal (movement indicated by fall in jack pressure) to
true alignment.
Care must be taken to prevent cold burns to
personnel and compartment must be thoroughly
ventilated to remove inert gas. After allowing
temperature to normalize, bearings and running
gears can be refitted and crankshaft deflection
taken. The engine is then run on trial to prove
satisfactory. Regular checks must be taken and
inspection period gradually extended until the
repair is considered permanent.
Cracks in crankshaft:

Any crack suspected must first be confirmed by dye

penetrant tests or magnetic particle test and if possible
ultrasonic test, to determine the depth of the crack.
As soon as crack has been confirmed the master and
owner must be informed, since the vessel cannot
function normally it may be classified as a casualty. If
the crack is shallow it should be removed by grinding
and surface polished, so that its effect as a stress raiser
is eliminated. Shaft and bearing alignment is checked
and adjustments made, if required. A certificate must be
obtained from the classification society surveyor to
allow the vessel to proceed at reduced speed.
Crankshaft Problems:

The majority of failures of steel crankshafts are fatigue

failures originating from following points:
1. Lip of an oil hole in a crankpin. In severe cases of
torsional vibrations, cracks may be found at several
crankpins and journals.
2. At the fillets between crank webs and
crankpins/journals.
3. At flange couplings of conventional design.
4. A common type of crankshaft failure is characterised
by a crack originating from crankpin and web fillet (at
the underside of crankpin) and proceeding through the
rectangular section of the web.
5. Cracks can develop in a crank web, particularly
in the higher stressed regions, midway between
pin and journal.
6. Cracks can develop at the fillet between the
journal and web, particularly in the arc between
the position corresponding to 10'o clock and 2'o
clock position, when the piston is at TDC.
7. Twisting or slipping.
Crankshaft Inspection:

• Should be checked for cracks giving special attention

to the points mentioned above.
• Working surface of journals and pins to be
examined for signs of corrosion or pitting caused by
water or acid contamination of lubricating oil.
• Shrink fit reference marks.
• Tightness of coupling bolts.
• Tightness of oil pipes and bearing locking devices.
• Oil holes cleanliness.
• Balance securing arrangement.
• Blank plugs in oil holes and oil tightness.
• Crankshaft deflections
Crankshaft Alignment:

Crankshaft alignment accuracy will depend on the following:

1. Shaft must be resting on the lower half of the main
bearing.
2. Tie bolts should be correctly stressed.
3. All unit running gear in place.
4. Main engine bedplate holding down bolts should be tight.
5. Engine room temperature should be noted (noting engine
hot or cold).
6. Camshaft drive chain tension should be correct.
7. Loading of the ship should be same at each time during
alignment check, (Draught should be same) and checked.
8. Alignment should be checked only when the ship is afloat.
Method of Testing Alignment:

Assuming hull deflections are not excessive and the

bedplate is neither distorted nor bearing pockets
worn, following methods could be adopted for
alignment checking:
•Bridge gauge to measure the wear down at each
main bearing.
•Remove main bearing bottom half in turn and
measure thickness to check for wear down amount.
•By using dial gauge measure deflections between
crank webs of each unit.
Deflections

• All steps under ‘Crankshaft Alignment’ to be observed.

• In addition to abovementioned points following points
should be noted: Readings should be taken at same position
between webs and Engine should be turned in the same
direction ("ahead" direction)
Interpretation of crankshaft deflections gives an indication
of high or low bearings.
“When a bearing between two cranks is higher than those
on either side of it, crank webs will tend to open out when
the cranks are at bottom dead centre and close in when
cranks are on top dead centers”.
Vice versa if there is a low bearing between two cranks.
 
To interpret deflection readings one should refer to engine
manufacturer’s engine manual at all times. Crankshaft
deflection effect will be dependent upon the rigidity of the
foundation (Bed plate of the engine) and the vessel.
Measurements should be taken, as far as possible, under the
same set of condition – which must be recorded with the
measurements. Changes under similar conditions appearing
suddenly or gradually over an extended period give evidence
of foundation subsistence.
In case of unacceptable deviation the plant must be
realigned and main bearings inspected.

Apart from readings taken from a planned program,

additional readings may be taken: After a collision or a
grounding; After bearing or crankshaft damage; Prior to and
after every dry-docking in floating condition.
 Connecting Rod
This is a highly stressed component resulting from:

• Gas force loads: Which is a maximum compressive load at

T.D.C. (15% of maximum at 90* A.T.D.C)
• Inertia loads: Resulting from the reciprocating running
gear is maximum compressive at B.D.C. and maximum
tensile at T.D.C. (particularly in 4 stroke engines).
• Transverse inertia loads: Known as " whip" resulting from
the mass of the connecting rod and its oscillating motion.
This is maximum at about 80* past T.D.C. and is greatest in
high-speed engines.
May be circular or ‘H’ section - usually circular for slow
speed engines and ‘H’ for medium and high speed,
where the transverse loading is greatest.
The connecting rod may be required to transport oil
between the top & bottom end bearings - circular
sections are most suitable for this purpose.
Stress and load concentration is reduced at the ends of
the rod by increasing the area through a tapered
section, having generous fillets. Solid ends provide a
rigid platform for the top end-bearings and gives good
support to the bottom end bearing. This essentially
used for thin shell bearings, to prevent fretting
between the back of the shell and its housing.
 Connecting Rod
• Connecting Rods are produced as a single drop forging
incorporating the top half of the crankpin bearing
housing and the bottom half of the solid crosshead pin
bearing housing.
• On older engines the bearings were white metal thick
wall bearings, scraped to fit. Clearances were adjusted
by inserting or removing shims between the bearing
halves. Modern bearings are of the "thinwall" type,
where a thin layer of white metal or a tin aluminium
alloy is bonded to a steel shell backing. The clearance
on these bearings is non adjustable; When the
clearance reaches a maximum the bearing is changed.
Oil to lubricate the crankpin bearing is supplied
down a drilling in the connecting rod from the
crosshead. When inspecting the crankpin bearing
and journal it is good practice to check the
journal for ovality because if this is excessive, a
failure in the hydrodynamic lubrication can occur.
 Connecting Rod

BOTTOM END BOLTS

• Because of stress reversal during operation, bottom end
bolts have a limited life. This varies from engine to
engine, but is generally around 12-15000 hours. If a
bottom end bolt was to fail in operation, then the
results would be disastrous.
• Bottom end bolts should be treated with care when
removed from the engine during overhauls. They should
be inspected for any damage to the surface from which
a crack could start. This damage could be due to
corrosion (water in LO) or because of incorrect handling.
Accurate and uniform pre-tensioning of the bottom
end bolts is necessary to:

Reduce the risk of fretting between palm and housing.

Eliminate bending moments on the bolts (caused by
uneven tightening, resulting in stress concentration in
the root of the thread.
• Reduce the range of stress fluctuation, which is a
major factor in fatigue failure (the maximum stress
way be increased but, the fluctuation range is
reduced).
• Provide the correct ‘nip’ to the thin shell bearings
(to prevent fretting on the blocking piece and fatigue-
crazy cracking on the bearing surface).
Connecting Rod Bolts: Important Designing Considerations:

• Well-formed fillet between bolt head and shank. There

should be a proper chamfer at the mouth hole.
• There should be smooth radii wherever there is a change in
diameter.
• Surface of the bolt should be given a high degree of finish.
• It would be beneficial to reduce the diameter of bolt shank
less than the core diameter at the bottom of the thread
(about 10% less).
• Bolt material should have adequate strength and high
resilience.
• It would be ideal to make the bolt of uniform cross-
sectional area but it is necessary to have certain parts of
shank enlarged in diameter for the fitting portions.
Tightening of Bolts:
Following methods are in use:
1. Applying the desired preload by means of hydraulic
cylinder and following up nut.
2. Measuring the extension of the bolt with a micrometer
device whilst the bolt is tightened.
3. Hand tightening lightly, and then turning up the nut
through a predetermined and calculated angle with respect
to the bolt.
4. Using ‘torque spanner’, e.g. a spanner which reads the
torque or set to give way at a predetermined torque.
Methods (1) & (2) as mentioned above are most accurate.
Method (3) is good if bolt stiffness is known and calculation
is accurate. Torque spanners (method 4) are useful for small
medium sized bolts; care has to be taken as regards
Lubrication.
Failure in Bolts:

Failure is essentially due to fatigue.

Factors contributing to failures are as follows:
Stress concentrations at bolt heads, change of
section, surface finish etc., Over stretching of bolt;
Uneven tightening; Inadequate pretension;
Improper seating of nut or bolt head causing
bending stresses; Corrosive attack in the form of
bending.
 
 Crosshead
Modern high power engine may be transmitting up to
600 tons load at peak combustion pressure through
the crosshead, which produces large guide reaction
as connecting rod angularity increases, two sets of
guides are provided, since the reaction is reversed
when passing through BDC & TDC, (with single
acting engine).

For high powers, crossheads are kept short and the

pins increased in diameter.
This provides:

Very rigid structure which has little deflection

under load. (improved fatigue resistance and
better alignment with bearings).
Large top bearing area to reduce specific loads.
Possibility to use harder bearing material with
higher fatigue resistance (in conjunction with
chrome plated pins).
Higher peripheral velocity to entrain the oil
(thicker oil films can be produced).
 Crosshead Bearing Lubrication
Lubrication of top end bearing:
• The oscillating motion of the top end prevents
effective lubrication by hydrodynamic fluid films
alone. Thick film lubrication however, does exist
and is produced by a combination of actions:
• Hydrodynamic lubrication - can only exist so long as
there is relative movement between pin and
bearing to entrain the oil. The higher the entraining
velocity, thicker the oil film (larger pin diameters
produce higher entraining velocity).
Squeeze film lubrication - provided a thick oil film
exits, a suddenly applied load will cause the oil
viscosity to increase and the bearing material to
deflect. The combined effect restricts oil flow
from the bearing, which acts as a dash - pot.

Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication - uses the

combined effect of elastic deformation of the
surface and hydrodynamics of the fluid, to trap a
‘pool’ of oil between the surfaces. To ensure thick
film at the end of compression, such film
assisting, mechanism may be required.
 Crosshead Bearing Lubrication

Pressure boosting: This may be achieved by:

• Pressure control valve and separate oil feed

manifolds to top end & main bearings (Sulzer).

• Using a booster pump, to increase the feed pressure

to about 20bar driven by the motion of the
connecting rod (M.A.N).
Factors governing load capacity:

The type of lubrication - whether full lubrication can be

obtained.
Size of bearing area - determined by the length and
diameter of the pin.
Length of bearing - as bearing length is reduced a greater
amount of oil leakage occurs, reducing film thickness.
Bearing material - does the material have the required
properties with regard to fatigue, fatigue strength &
resistance and crushing strength.
Bearing clearance - reducing the clearance increases the
load capacity but also increases friction loss in bearing
(insufficient clearance can cause self loading, too much
increases dynamic loading and side leakage of film oil).
Failure of crosshead bearings:

Types of failure may include:

1. Plastic flow - due to over heated bearing surface.
2. Extrusion - causing blockage to oil holes and oil
grooves, white metal projecting from bearing sides.
3. Crazy cracking- across surface of bearing due to
fatigue.
4. Detachment- white metal overlay or white metal
solid cracked through the backing and bond broken.
5. Corrosion - of the tin rich matrix of the white metal
due to electrolytic action of impurities (sea water or
acids) in the oil.
One or more of the following may cause failures in
bearings:

1. Insufficient supply of lubricant.

2. Contaminated lubricant.
3. Inferior quality of bearing material or
manufacture.
4. Inadequate bond to backing.
5. Misalignment of running gear.
6. Deterioration of pin surface finish.
7. Bearing over loaded- particularly during
manoeuvering on light distillate fuel, if full pressure
is maintained for a prolonged period.