Topic 1

Introduction to cell
 Introduction
Biology is the systematic study of life
The branch of science that is concerned with
the study on life and living organisms
The characteristics of life: All living organisms
share the following characteristics of life:
i) Organization: the levels of biological organization
extend as follows:
ii) Acquisition of materials and energy from the
environment
iii) Reproduction: they produce offspring
iv) Respond to stimuli: they react to internal and
external events
v) Internal homeostasis
vi) Growth and development
vii) Adaptations to a changing environment
 The Diversity and Unity of Cells
Cells are the fundamental units of all living
things // cells the smallest units of life differ in
size, shape & functions.
Although the diversity organisms is incredible,
the cells of all organism share many similarities.
Only a few structural differences between most
types of cells, because of some organisms are
single cells.
 Cell Theory
All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
Cells are the basic living unit of structure
and function in organisms.
All cells come only from other cells.
 Cell Theory (cont.)

Four generalizations constitute the cell theory:

1. Every living organism consists of one or more

cells

2. A cell is the smallest unit of life, individually

alive even as part of a multicelled organism

3. All living cells come from division of

preexisting cells

4. Cells contain hereditary material, which they

pass to their offspring during division
 Two main types of cells
There are 2 components to the cell theory.
i) All organisms are composed of cells.
ii)Cells come only from preexisting cells.
All cells have an outer membrane called the
plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane encloses a semifluid
substance called the cytoplasm and the cell’s
genetic material.
The word “cell” entered biology in the 17th century.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is recognized for inventing one of
the earliest microscopes and observing a first cell. constructed
a number of simple microscopes and observed details of
numerous forms of protozoa, fungi, and bacteria in 1670s.

Robert Hooke confirmed earlier findings and coined the term

“cell.” , the English biologist who observed algae and fungi in
the 1660s.

Matthias Schleiden stated that plants are composed of cells.

Theodore Schwann stated that animals are composed of
cells.
During the 1700s, microscopes were used to
further elaborate on the microbial world,
 by the late 1800s, the sophisticated light
microscopes had been developed.
The electron microscope was developed in the
1940s, thus making the viruses and the
smallest bacteria visible.
 Size of Cell
Cell size varies, but are quite small.
A frog’s egg is about 1 millimeter (1mm) in
diameter.
Large enough to be seen by naked eye
Most cells are smaller than 1mm.
Some cells are as small as 1 micrometer
(1m).
Microscopes permit extremely small objects to
be seen, objects measured in the metric system
in micrometers and nanometers.
A micrometer (μm) is equivalent to a millionth of
a meter, while a nanometer (nm) is a billionth of
a meter.
Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and unicellular algae
are normally measured in micrometers, while
viruses are commonly measured in nanometers.
A typical bacterium such as Escherichia coli
measures about 2 micrometers in length and
about 1 micrometer in width.
 Size of Cell (cont.)
Why are cells so small?
Cells being small is an advantage for
multicellular organisms:
Nutrients such as glucose can enter the cell.
Wastes such as CO2 can exit cell.
Therefore surface area affects the ability to get
materials in and out of a cell.
As cells increase in volume, the proportionate
amount of surface area decreases.
 Size of Cell (cont.)
For a cube-shaped cell:
The volume increases by the cube of the sides
(height X width X depth).
The surface area increases the square of the
sides and the number of sides (height X width X
6).
If a cell doubles in size, its surface area
increases fourfold, while the volume increases
eightfold.
 Surface Area / Volume Ratio

One 4-cm cube Eight 2-cm cubes Sixty-four 1-cm cubes

The size to which cells can grow is limited by their surface area to volume ratio.
All 3 have the same volume, but the group on the right has 4 times the surface
area
 Cells under the microscope
How scientist study cells?
Microscopy is the study of the principle how
microscope operate and the methods of using
them.
Most cells are far too small to see with the
naked eye
•We use different types of microscopes and
techniques to reveal cells and their internal and
external details
 Cells under the microscope (cont.)
Our bodies are comprised of several hundred different
types of cells, with billions of each cell type present.
Each type of cell is specialized in its particular
function.

Why microscope are needed to see most cells?

Cells are so small that a microscope is needed to see
them.
 Types of microscopes
Microscope are divided into LM &EM
1. Light microscopes 4. Electron microscopes

2. Phase-contrast 5. Transmission electron

microscopes Microscopes

3. Fluorescence 6. Scanning electron

microscope microscopes
 Examples of microscopes

Transmission electron
Compound light microscope microscope (TEM)
The light microscope.
The common light microscope used in the laboratory is called a
compound microscope because it contains 2 types of lenses that
function to magnify an object.
A compound light microscope often contains 4 objective lenses:
 scanning lens (4X), low‐power lens (10X), high‐power lens (40
X), and oil‐immersion lens (100 X).
an ocular lens that magnifies 10 times, the total magnifications
possible will be 40 X with the scanning lens, 100 X with the low‐
power lens, 400 X with the high‐power lens, and 1000 X with the oil ‐
immersion lens.
 Microscopy basics

http://virtual.itg.uiuc.edu/training/LM_tutorial/

How to use mucroscope

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-w98KA8UqU
2nd alternative microscope is the phase‐contrast
microscope.
This microscope also contains special condensers
that throw light “out of phase” and cause it to pass
through the object at different speeds.
Live, unstained organisms are seen clearly with
this microscope, and internal cell parts such as
mitochondria, lysosomes, and the Golgi body can be
seen with this instrument.
The fluorescent microscope
uses ultraviolet light as its light source.
When ultraviolet light hits an object, it excites the electrons
of the object, and they give off light in various shades of color.
Since ultraviolet light is used, the resolution of the object
increases.
A laboratory technique called the fluorescent‐antibody
technique employs fluorescent dyes and antibodies to help
identify unknown bacteria.
Electron microscopy.
The energy source used in the electron microscope is a beam of
electrons.
Since the beam has an exceptionally short wavelength, it strikes
most objects in its path and increases the resolution of the
microscope significantly.
Viruses and some large molecules can be seen with this
instrument.
The electrons travel in a vacuum to avoid contact with deflecting air
molecules, and magnets focus the beam on the object to be viewed.
An image is created on a monitor and viewed by the technologist.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM).
The more traditional form of electron microscope.
To use this instrument, one places ultrathin slices
of microorganisms or viruses on a wire grid and then
stains them with gold or palladium before viewing.
The densely coated parts of the specimen deflect
the electron beam, and both dark and light areas
show up on the image.
 incoming electron beam

condenser
lens
specimen
on grid
objective
lens
projective
lens
phosphor
screen
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Fig. 4.5b, p. 54
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 the more contemporary form electron microscope.
this microscope gives lower magnifications than
the TEM
the SEM permits three‐dimensional views of
microorganisms and other objects.
Whole objects are used, and gold or palladium
staining is employed.
Magnifying using the Light vs Electron microscope
 Cells under the microscope (cont.)
• Light microscopes can be used to view cells
but not in much detail.

• Electron microscopes allow the structure of

cells to be viewed in greater detail.
Cells under the microscope (cont.)
The light microscope v the electron microscope
 The light microscope vs the electron microscope

ELECTRON
FEATURE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
MICROSCOPE
Preparation of Temporary mounts Tissues must be
specimens living or dead dehydrated
= dead
Fixation Alcohol OsO4 or KMnO4
Embedding Wax Resin
Sectioning Hand or microtome Microtome only.
slices  20 000nm Slices  50nm
Whole cells visible Parts of cells visible
Stains Water soluble dyes Heavy metals

Support Glass slide Copper grid

 Sizes of Living Things
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 0.1 m 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 km

protein
chloroplast
mouse rose
plant and frog egg
amino animal
acids virus cells
ostrich
most bacteria human egg ant egg
atom
blue whale
electron microscope human

light microscope

human eye
 Different views of different microscopes, reveal
different characteristics of the same organism

A Light micrograph. B Light micrograph. C Fluorescence D A transmission E A scanning

A phase-contrast A reflected light micrograph. electron micrograph electron micro-
microscope yields high- microscope captures This image shows reveals fantastically graph shows surface
contrast images of light reflected from fluorescent light detailed images of details. SEMs may
trans- parent specimens. emitted by internal structures. be artificially colored
specimens. Dark areas chlorophyll to highlight specific
have taken up dye. molecules in the details.
cells.

Fig. 4.6, p. 55
The relationship between the surface area to
volume ratio of a cell and its size

Cells are small because they are limited by their

surface-area-to-volume-ratio.
The surface area of a cell is critical because it
must be large enough to allow adequate
nutrients to enter the cell.
Cells can increase their surface area with
specialized projections.
 Traits common to all cells

Cells differ in size, shape, and function.

Although cells differ in size, shape and

function, each starts out with a plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, and a region of DNA
(in eukaryotic cells, a nucleus)
 Cell structure and microscopy
SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURE EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS
Cell wall - + +
Plasma membrane + + +
Nucleus & nucleoli + + -
Chromosomes + + Circular loop of DNA
Centrioles + + -
Mitochondria + + -
Plastids (chloroplasts, chromoplasts etc.) - + -
Sap vacuole - + -
Food vacuoles Some + -
Contractile vacuoles Some + -
Pseudopods Some + -
Cilia Some + -
Flagellae Some Some Rotating
Microtubules + + -
Lysosomes + + -
Golgi apparatus + + -
Microvilli Some + -
 Cell structure and microscopy

SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURE EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES

ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

Endoplasmic reticulum + + -
Nuclear envelope & pores + + -
Vesicles + + -
Ribosomes +(bigger) +(bigger) +(smaller)
Mesosome + + +
Organelle membranes + + -
Macromolecular structures + + +