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Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• What are the main tenets of cell theory?
.
Cell theory
All living organisms are
composed of cells
smallest “building blocks” of all
multicellular organisms
.
Cell theory
Today, all new cells arise from
existing cells
All presently living cells have a
common origin
all cells have basic structural and
molecular similarities
all cells share similar energy
conversion reactions
all cells maintain and transfer
genetic information in DNA
the genetic code is essentially
universal
.
• What are the main tenets of cell theory?
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• What is surface area to volume ratio,
and why is it an important consideration
for cells?
.
Cell organization and homeostasis
.
Cell organization and homeostasis
.
Fig. 5.4
.
.
Cell organization and homeostasis
.
• What is surface area to volume ratio,
and why is it an important consideration
for cells?
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• Compare and contrast:
– LM and EM
– SEM and TEM
.
Studying cells – microscopy
Most cells are large enough to be
resolved from each other with light
microscopes (LM)
.
Fig. 5.2b
.
Fig. 5.2c
.
Studying cells – microscopy
LM resolution is limited
LM resolution (clarity) is limited
about 1 mm
due to the wavelength of visible light
only about 500 times better than the human eye, even at
maximum magnification
.
Studying cells – microscopy
Resolution of most subcellular structure
requires electron microscopy (EM)
electrons have a much smaller wavelength
than light (resolve down to under 1 nm)
.
Transmission Scanning
Light electron electron
microscope microscope microscope
Electron gun
Light beam Electron beam Second condenser
lens
Ocular lens First condenser
lens (magnet)
Final (objective)
Objective lens lens
Projector Cathode ray tube
lens (magnet) synchronized with
Specimen
scanning coil
Condenser lens
Secondary
electrons
Light source
Specimen
.
Studying cells – microscopy
scanning electron
microscopy (SEM)
samples are gold-plated
.
.
• Compare and contrast:
– LM and EM
– SEM and TEM
.
• Which is SEM, and which TEM? How
can you tell?
.
• Describe cell fractionation. Why is it
done, and how is it done? Include the
terms lyse, centrifugation, pellet, and
supernatant in your discussion.
.
Studying cells – fractionation
Cells can be broken and
fractionated to separate
cellular components
cells are broken (lysed) by
disrupting the cell membrane,
often using some sort of
detergent
grinding and other physical
force may be required,
especially if cell walls are
present
centrifugation is used to
separate cellular components
.
Studying cells – fractionation
centrifugation is used to
separate cellular components
samples are spun at high speeds
results in a centrifugal force
thousands to hundreds of
thousands times “normal” gravity
after spinning:
pellet – what gets packed down to
the bottom (densest material)
supernatant – solution above the
pellet
.
Studying cells – fractionation
cell components will end up in
either the pellet or the
supernatant depending on their
individual properties and the
details of the centrifugation
intact membrane-bound
organelles often wind up in
pellets (denser once first)
.
Studying cells – fractionation
density gradients can be used to subdivide
pellet components
based on their density
can be used to better separate similar organelles
from each other, for example Golgi complex from ER
.
• Describe cell fractionation. Why is it
done, and how is it done? Include the
terms lyse, centrifugation, pellet, and
supernatant in your discussion.
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• How do prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells differ from each other in typical
size and general organization?
.
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells
do not have internal
membranes (thus
no nuclear
membrane)
main DNA molecule
(chromosome) is
typically circular; its
location is called the
nuclear area
.
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells
plasma membrane is
typically enclosed in a cell
wall
often the cell wall is covered
with a sticky layer of
proteins and/or sugars
called a capsule
do not completely lack
organelles; have:
plasma membrane
ribosomes
.
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
eukaryotic cells
have internal
membranes and a
distinct, membrane-
enclosed nucleus
typically 10-100 mm
in diameter
.
• How do prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells differ from each other in typical
size and general organization?
.
• List as many organelles as you can think
of. Describe their structures and key
functions.
.
.
.
• List as many organelles as you can think
of. Describe their structures and key
functions.
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
How do proteins get outside of a cell?
.
• Describe the nuclear envelope, nuclear
pores, chromatin, chromosomes, and
nucleoli in terms of structures and key
functions.
.
Compartments in eukaryotic cells
.
Compartments in eukaryotic cells
membranes separate cell regions
have nonpolar regions that help form a barrier
between aqueous region
.
nucleus – the control center of the cell
nuclear envelope
double membrane
surrounding the
nucleus
nuclear pores –
protein complexes that
cross both membranes
and regulate passage
.
nucleus – the control center of the cell
chromatin – DNA-protein
complex
have granular appearance; easily
stained for microscopy (“chrom-” =
color)
“unpacked” DNA kept ready for
message transcription and DNA
replication
proteins protect DNA and help
maintain structure and function
chromosomes – condensed or
“packed” DNA ready for cell
division (“-some” = body)
.
nucleus – the control center of the cell
nucleoli – regions of ribosome
subunit assembly
appears different due to high RNA
and protein concentration (no
membrane)
.
• Describe the nuclear envelope, nuclear
pores, chromatin, chromosomes, and
nucleoli in terms of structures and key
functions.
.
• Describe the structure and function of
ribosomes.
.
ribosomes – the sites of protein synthesis
.
ribosomes – the sites of protein synthesis
.
• Describe the structure and function of
ribosomes.
.
• What is the endomembrane system
(include organelle components)?
.
• Diagram the cisternal maturation model for
the Golgi.
.
endomembrane system
endomembrane system – a set of
membranous organelles that interact with
each other via vesicles
includes ER, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles,
lysosomes, microbodies, and in some
definitions the nuclear membrane and the
plasma membrane
.
endomembrane system
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – membrane
network that winds through the cytoplasm
winding nature of the ER provides a lot of surface
area
many important cell reactions or sorting functions
require ER membrane surface
ER lumen – internal aqueous compartment in ER
separated from the rest of the cytosol
typically continuous throughout ER and with the
lumen between the nuclear membranes
enzymes within lumen and imbedded in lumen side
of ER differ from those on the other side, thus
dividing the functional regions
.
endomembrane system
smooth ER – primary site
of lipid synthesis, many
detoxification reactions,
and sometimes other
activities
rough ER – ribosomes that
attach there insert proteins
into the ER lumen as they
are synthesized
.
endomembrane system
rough ER – ribosomes that attach there insert proteins into the ER
lumen as they are synthesized
ribosome attachment directed by a signal peptide at the amino end of
the polypeptide (see Ch. 17.4, p.326)
a protein/RNA signal recognition particle (SRP) binds to the signal
peptide and pauses translation
at the ER the assembly binds to an SRP receptor protein
SRP leaves, protein synthesis resumes (now into the ER lumen), and the
signal peptide is cut off
.
endomembrane system
proteins inserted into the ER lumen may be
membrane bound or free
proteins are often modified in the lumen
(example, carbohydrates or lipids added)
proteins are transported from the ER in
transport vesicles
vesicles – small, membrane-bound sacs
buds off of an organelle (ER or other)
contents within the vesicles (often proteins)
transported to another membrane surface
vesicles fuses with membranes, delivering
contents to that organelle or outside of the
cell
.
Fig. 5.16d (TEArt)
Protein
Ribosome
.
endomembrane system
Golgi apparatus (AKA Golgi complex) – a stack of flattened
membrane sacs (cisternae) where proteins further processed,
modified, and sorted [the “post office” of the cell]
not contiguous with ER, and lumen of each sac is usually separate from
the rest
has three areas: cis, medial, and trans
.
endomembrane system
cis face: near ER and receives vesicles from it; current model (cisternal maturation model)
holds that vesicles actually coalesce to continually form new cis cisternae
medial region: as a new cis cisterna is produced, the older cisternae mature and move away
from the ER
in this region proteins are further modified (making glycoproteins and/or lipoproteins where appropriate,
and )
maturing cisternae may make other products; for example, many polysaccharides are made in the Golgi
some materials are needed back a the new cis face and are transported there in vesicles
trans face: nearest to the plasma membrane; a fully matured cisterna breaks into many vesicles
that are set up to go to the proper destination (such as the plasma membrane or another
organelle) taking their contents with them
.
endomembrane system
.
endomembrane system
lysosomes – small membrane-bound sacs of digestive enzymes
serves to confine the digestive enzymes and their actions
.
endomembrane system
lysosomes – small membrane-bound sacs of digestive enzymes
used to degrade ingested material, or in some cases dead or damaged
organelles
ingested material is found in vesicles that bud in from the plasma membrane; the
complex molecules in those vesicles is then digested
can also fuse with dead or damaged organelles and digest them
digested material can then be sent to other parts of the cell for use
found in animals, protozoa; debatable in other eukaryotes, but all must have
something like a lysosome
.
endomembrane system
vacuoles – large membrane-bound sacs
that perform diverse roles; have no
internal structure
distinguished from vesicles by size
in plants, algae, and fungi, performs many
of the roles that lysosomes perform for
animals
central vacuole – typically a single, large
sac in plant cells that can be 90% of the
cell volume
usually formed from fusion of many small
vacuoles in immature plant cells
storage sites for water, food, salts, pigments,
and metabolic wastes
important in maintaining turgor pressure
tonoplast – membrane of the plant vacuole
food vacuoles – present in most protozoa
and some animal cells; usually bud from
plasma membrane and fuse with
lysosomes for digestion
contractile vacuoles – used by many
protozoa for removing excess water
.
endomembrane system
microbodies – small membrane-
bound organelles that carry out
specific cellular functions; examples:
lysosomes could be consider a type of
microbody
peroxisomes – sites of many
metabolic reactions that produce
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is
toxic to the rest of the cell
peroxisomes have enzymes to break
down H2O2, protecting the cell
peroxisomes are abundant in liver cells
in animals and leaf cells in plants
normally found in all eukaryotes
example: detoxification of ethanol in
liver cells occurs in peroxisomes
glyoxysomes – in plant seeds,
contains enzymes that convert stored
fats into sugar
.
• What is the endomembrane system
(include organelle components)?
.
• Diagram the cisternal maturation model for
the Golgi.
.
Energy Converting Organelles
energy obtained from the environment is
typically chemical energy (in food) or light
energy
.
• Draw a mitochondrion in cross-section
and describe its structure and functions.
.
Energy Converting Organelles
mitochondria – the site of aerobic respiration
recall aerobic respiration:
sugar + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
the “energy” is actually stored in ATP
.
Energy Converting Organelles -
mitochondria
mitochondria have a double
membrane
space between membranes =
intermembrane space
inner membrane is highly
folded, forming cristae;
provides a large surface area
inner membrane is also a highly
selective barrier
the enzymes that conduct
aerobic respiration are found in
the inner membrane
inside of inner membrane is the
matrix, analogous to the
cytoplasm of a cell
.
Energy Converting Organelles –
mitochondria
.
• Draw a mitochondrion in cross-section
and describe its structure and functions.
.
• Draw a chloroplast in cross-section and
describe its structure and functions.
.
Energy Converting Organelles
plastids – organelles of plants and algae that produce and
store food
include amyloplasts (for starch storage), chromoplasts (for color,
often found in petals and fruits), and chloroplasts (for
photosynthesis)
like mitochondria, have their own DNA (typically a bit larger and
more disk-shaped than mitochondria, however)
.
Energy Converting Organelles – plastids
(chloroplasts)
chloroplasts get their green color from chlorophyll, the main light harvesting pigments
involved in photosynthesis
carbon dioxide + water + light energy food (glucose) + oxygen
.
• Draw a chloroplast in cross-section and
describe its structure and functions.
.
• Describe the endosymbiont theory.
Include evidence for it, including
predictions that have proven true.
.
Energy Converting Organelles
endosymbiont theory
mitochondria and plastids
evolved from prokaryotic cells
that took residence in larger
cells and eventually lost their
independence
.
Energy Converting Organelles
endosymbiont theory
supporting evidence
the size scale is right - mitochondria and plastids are on the high end
of the size of typical bacteria
endosymbionts also have their own DNA and their own “cell” division;
in many ways they act like bacterial cells
.
Energy Converting Organelles
endosymbiont theory
some genes appear to have been shuttled out of the endosymbionts to the
nucleus
many of the proteins used by endosymbionts are actually encoded by
nuclear genes and translated in the cytoplasm (or on rough ER) and
transported to the endosymbionts
DNA sequencing of endosymbionts is being used to trace the evolutionary
history of the endosymbionts
appears that endosymbiosis began about 1.5 to 2 billion years ago (around
when the first eukaryotic cells appeared)
mitochondria appear to have a monophyletic origin (one initial endosymbiotic
event, giving rise to all mitochondria in eukaryotic cells today)
plastids appear to have a polyphyletic origin (more than one initial
endosymbiotic event giving rise to different plastid lines present today in algae
and plants)
.
• Describe the endosymbiont theory.
Include evidence for it, including
predictions that have proven true.
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• What are the functions of the
cytoskeleton?
.
• Describe the structure and function(s)
of:
– motor proteins
– MTOCs
– centrosomes
– centrioles
– cilia and flagella
.
Cytoskeleton
eukaryotic cells typically have a size and shape that is maintained
the cytoskeleton is a dense network of protein fibers that provides needed
structural support
the network also has other functions
a scaffolding for organelles
cell movement and cell division (dynamic nature to the protein fibers is involved
here)
transport of materials within the cell
the cytoskeleton is composed of three types of protein filaments:
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
.
.
microtubules are the thickest
filaments of the cytoskeleton
hollow, rod -shaped cylinders
about 25 nm in diameter
made of a-tubulin and b-tubulin
dimers
dimers can be added or removed
from either end (dynamic nature)
one end (plus end) adds dimers
more rapidly than the minus end
can be anchored, where an end is
attached to something and can no
longer add or lose dimers
.
microtubule-organizing centers
(MTOCs) serve as anchors
centrosome in animal
cells
centrosome has two
centrioles in a
perpendicular
arrangement
.
microtubules are involved in
moving organelles
motor proteins (such as
kinesin or dynein) attach
to organelle and to
microtubule
using ATP as an energy
source, the motor proteins
change shape and thus
produce movement
microtubule essentially acts
as a track for the motor
protein
motor proteins are
directional; kinesin moves
toward the plus end, dynein
away from it
.
cilia and flagella are made of
microtubules
thin, flexible projections from cells
used in cell movement, or to move
things along the cell surface
share the same basic structure;
called cilia if short (2-10 mm typically)
and flagella if long (typically 200 mm)
central stalk covered by cell
membrane extension, and anchored
to a basal body
9x3 structure
stalk has two inner microtubules
surrounded by nine attached pairs of
microtubules
9+2 arrangement
.
cilia and flagella are made of
microtubules
stalk has two inner microtubules
surrounded by nine attached
pairs of microtubules
9+2 arrangement
.
microfilaments are solid filaments
about 7 nm in diameter
composed of two entwined chains of actin monomers
.
microfilaments are solid filaments
about 7 nm in diameter
important in muscle cells; in
conjunction with myosin, they
are responsible for muscle
contraction
used for many cell movements
such as:
contractile structures
forming cell extensions
“pinching in” during cell division
.
intermediate filaments
typically just a bit wider than microfilaments, this is
the catch-all group for cytoskeletal filaments
composed of a variety of other proteins
the types of proteins involved differ depending on
cell types and on the organism; apparently limited
to animal cells and protozoans
.
intermediate filaments
not easily disassembled, thus more permanent
a web of intermediate filaments reinforces cell shape and
positions of organelles (they give structural stability)
prominent in cells that withstand mechanical stress
form the most insoluble part of the cell
.
• What are the functions of the
cytoskeleton?
.
• Describe the structure and function(s)
of:
– motor proteins
– MTOCs
– centrosomes
– centrioles
– cilia and flagella
.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
Cell theory
Cell organization and homeostasis
Studying cells – microscopy and fractionation
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Compartments in eukaryotic cells (cell regions,
organelles)
Cytoskeleton
Outside the cell
.
• Describe the outer part and outside
interface of a:
– typical prokaryotic cell
– typical plant cell
– typical fungal cell
– typical animal cell
.
Outside the Cell
Most prokaryotes have a cell wall, an outer envelope, and a
capsule (capsule is also called glycocalyx or cell coat)
.
Outside the Cell
.
Outside the Cell
animals do not have cell walls, but their cells secrete
varying amounts of compounds that can produce a
glycocalyx and an extracellular matrix (ECM)
glycocalyx: polysaccharides attached to proteins and lipids on the
outer surface of the plasma membrane
typically functions in cell recognition and communication, cell contacts,
and structural reinforcement
.
Outside the Cell
ECM: a gel of carbohydrates and fibrous proteins;
several different molecules can be involved
main structural protein is tough, fibrous collagen
.
• Describe the outer part and outside
interface of a:
– typical prokaryotic cell
– typical plant cell
– typical fungal cell
– typical animal cell