• Bit rate

• Baud rate
• Goal in data communication is to increase the
bit rate while decreasing the baud rate.
• Increasing the data rate, increases the speed
of transmission.
• Decreasing the baud rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement.
• Bit Rate= Baud rate * Number of bits per second
Figure 5-1

Different Conversion Schemes

Figure 5-2

Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-3

Types of Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-4

Unipolar Encoding
Figure 5-5

Types of Polar Encoding

 Polar schemes

• The voltages are on both side of the time axis.

• NRZ (non return to zero)
• NRZ-L : The level of the voltage determines
the value of bit.
• NRZ-I : the change in the level of the voltage
determines the level of the bit. If there is no
change, the bit is 0, if there is a change, the bit
is 1.
Figure 5-6
NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding
5.9
• when the voltage level in a digital signal is
constant for a while, the spectrum creates
very low frequencies. These frequencies
around zero, called DC components, present
problems for a short system that cannot pass
low frequencies.
 Return to zero

• It uses three values: positive, negative and zero.

• The signal changes not between bits but during
the bit. The signal goes to zero in the middle of
each bit.
• The main disadvantage is that it requires two
signal changes to encode a bit and therefore
occupies greater bandwidth.
• Another problem is its complexity.
Figure 5-7

RZ Encoding
Figure 5-8
Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding
• Manchester encoding : the duration of bits is
divided into two halves. The voltage remains
at one level during the first half and moves to
the other level in the second bit.
• A negative to positive transition represents
binary 1 and a positive to negative transition
represents binary 0.
Figure 8-3

FDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-4
FDM, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-6
Demultiplexing, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Five channels, each with a l00-kHz
bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?
 WDM
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of
different frequencies.
• Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very
simple.
• We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light
at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the de-multiplexer. The
combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism.
Figure 8-8
TDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-10
TDM, Multiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-11
TDM, Demultiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 Interleaving
• TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating
switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
other on the de-multiplexing side.
• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the
same speed, but in opposite directions.
• On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.
• On the de-multiplexing side, as the switch opens
in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.