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COGNITIVE THEORY
 3.2 Cognitive Theory
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Theories based on cognitive perspective,

concentrate efforts on learning methods such
as insight, reasoning, approach of problem-
solving, discovery, conceptualization,
assimilation and accommodation
 3.2.1 Kohler’s Learning Theory
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Kohler and Koffka used the cognitive approach to

study how a chimpanzee managed to obtain a
banana which was hung on a roof of his cage.
Situation : Chimpanzee in the cage with three
boxes and a banana hung on a roof
Tried to jump up several times, but failed to reach
the banana.
Arranged boxes and managed to get the banana.
 Conclusion From Experiment
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Animal also used cognitive process to learn.

Chimpanzee used the boxes => rational action
based on former experience and its perception of
the relationship between the stimuli.
The perception of this relationship which is used
to solve the problem is considered as insight.
Insight is the mental ability which helps an
individual to perceive all of a sudden, the
relationship of the elements in the environment
that would provide a way to solve the problem.
Implications of Kohler’s Learning Theory:
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Encourage pupils to use their insight to solve

learning problems.
Guide pupils to use their perception to relate
elements in the surroundings
Present teaching activities step by step
Use specific related examples to guide pupils to
conclude or generalize.
Teaching new experience must be based on
pupils’ ability and existing experience
Provide sufficient learning materials to solve
problems.
 3.2.2 Bruner’s Concept Formation
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Three categories of concept:

1. Conjunctive concept--a concept which contains two or
more integrated attributes and they cannot be separated
or lessened.
2. Disjunctive concept--attributes which have been
integrated into a concept so that they can be used in a
certain situation or other situation.
3. Relational concept—attributes contained in the concept
which possess special relationship between one another

* conjuct – combine , associated

disjunctive – involving separation
attributes – characteristic quality
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According to Bruner, language is an

important representative in human’s
cognitive development.
Humans use symbols and language so as to
help them to think and solve problems, by
means of formation of concepts and
derivation of generalizations.
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Known as discovery learning theory

Importance on logical, analytical, & intuitive
thinking
A structured & systematic knowledge form
Implications of Bruner’s Theory of Teaching and Learning:
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(1) Theorem of learning Mathematics

Theorem of Construction
Theorem of Notation
Theorem of Contrast and Variation
Theorem of Relation
(2) The Strategy of Teaching and Learning
Mathematics
 3.2.3 R.M. Gagne’s Information
Processing Model of Learning
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Gagne’s learning theory:

How humans obtain information during the
learning process?
 Stimuli from the external environment will activate the
nervous system through human sensory organs.
 This information will be
- interpreted in the short term memory ,
- encode, transit and store in the long term memory
in conceptual form.
 When retrieved, it will first enter the response operator,
which will decide , control and implement the form of
human’s behaviour that interacts with the environment.
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According to Gagne, experiences which have

been kept in the long term memory are
important for humans to facilitate the process
of new learning.
Gagne’s Phases of Learning and the Instructional Events
That Support Learning
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Learning Phase Instructional Event

1. Attention; alertness Gain learner’s attention through

2. Expectancy
3. Retrieval (of relevant information
and/or skills) to working memory
4. Selective perception of stimulus
features
unusual event, question, or change of
stimulus
Inform the learner of the objective;
activate motivation
Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
4. Selective perception of stimulus features
Present material; highlight distinctive features

5. Encoding; storage in LTM Provide learning guidance

6. Retrieval and responding Elicit performance

7. Reinforcement Provide informative feedback

8. Cueing retrieval Assess performance

9. Generalizing

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Learning Phase Instructional Event

4. Selective perception of stimulus Present material; highlight distinctive

features features
5. Encoding; storage in LTM Provide learning guidance
6. Retrieval and responding Elicit performance

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In the instructional events model:

1. The first step in learning, and the first challenge
for the teacher, is to gain the students’ attention.
2. The next step is to set an expectancy for learning
by letting the students know the goals of the
lesson and perhaps arousing their curiosity or
providing other motivation for learning.
3. When the students are paying attention and have
the right expectations, they need to be reminded
of what they already known that is related to the
material to be learned.
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4. With this prior knowledge in their working memories,

they are ready to make connections between new and old
information. Now it is time to present the new material,
highlighting the important aspects or key features.

5. At this point the students should have the new material

in their short-term or working memories, so they are
ready to process the information and move it to long-
term memory. The teacher’s role now is to provide
learning guidance, such as explanations and examples or
a guided-discovery exercise.
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6. Students have to demonstrate, to the teacher and to

themselves, that they really understand the material. The
students must respond in some way.

7. These responses allow the teacher to check the students’

understanding and provide reinforcement or corrections or
both.

8. Finally, to ensure that they can retrieve and apply their new
knowledge readily, students should practice in a variety of
situations.

9. Reviews at the end of the lesson, week, and unit encourage

transfer by extending practice over time.
 Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning
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1. Signal learning
2. Stimulus-response learning
3. Learning through chaining
4. Learning through verbal association
5. Learning through multiple discrimination
6. Concept learning
7. Principle learning
8. Problem-solving
Implications of Gagne’s taxonomy of learning with
referance to learning of Mathematics:
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Four important categories which must be mastered

by pupils in Mathematics are
fact, skill, concept and principle.
Mathematics factsstimulus-response learning
Skillschaining
Mathematics conceptconcept learning
Mathematics principleproblem-solving
 3.2.4 David P. Ausubel’s Theory of Reception Learning
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 Meaningful reception learning is more

effective than learning through inquiry-
discovery which was suggested by
Bruner.
 Changes in the development of a pupil’s
cognitive structure by assimilating new
information can be acquired through
subsumption
 Two types of subsumption:
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1. Derivative subsumption is a new concept

derived from existing information and is
assimilated into a person’s cognitive structure.
2. Correlative subsumption refers to a new
information or concept received through the
development process of its meaning and
assimilated into a pupil’s cognitive structure. As
the new information or concept acquired is more
than the existing information (existing cognitive
structure), the pupil has to change his existing
information through accommodation.
 Subordinate learning (deductive learning):

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General Specific
Formulae, 1.Application of fomulae,

principles principles, theorems or

or rules rules.
which have 2.To derive new formulae,
been principles, theorems or
learned rules
 Superordinate learning (inductive
learning):
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Specific General
Specific To observe, Derive
Examples to study,  generalization,
ascertain, concept,
interpret principle or
law
 Learning process according to Ausubel’s Theory of Reception
Learning:
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Subordinate
learning
(deductive) Development of
Derivative cognitive
subsumption structure
Existing process Superordinate through
stimuli, learning the process
information, (inductive) of assimilation
concept, Correlative or
principle. subsumption Integrated accommodation
process learning
 Advance Organizer:
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Theory of reception learningadvance organizer

Advance Organizer can be used as a technique to
present information in the form of language or
learning materials to the pupils, with the aim to
activate their existing cognitive structures so that
the assimilation process could occur effectively
through the learning process. AO can be in the form
of concept, principle, law or specific examples
which are related to the existing cognitive structure.
 Ausubel’s Cognitive Learning Theory
Acquired Information
Advance Organizer
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Reception Learning Discovery Learning

Meaningful Rote Meaningful Rote

Learning Learning Learning Learning

Derivative Subsumption Correlative Subsumption

Subordinate learning (Deductive approach)

Superordinate learning (Inductive approach)
Integrated learning (Eclective approach)

Through assimilation/ accommodation process

Changes and development in the cognitive structures

Implication of Ausubel’s Learning Theory:
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1. Teach new concept, principle and law by relating

them with the existing concept, principle and
law.
2. Use advance organizer as learning motivation at
the beginning of each lesson.
3. Teach concept, principle and law by using
inductive approach, deductive approach or the
combination of both, i.e. integrated approach
(eclective).
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4. Use meaningful reception learning by arranging

the learning content systematically and according
to the stages, so that pupils can follow them
effectively.
5. When using inductive approach apply specific but
related examples to guide pupils to derive
generalization, concept, principle or law accurately.
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6. Use concept, principle and law which have been

learned for deductive learning and guide pupils to
apply them in various specific examples or
formulate new concept, principle or law.

7. Guide pupils to make discrimination by comparing

either the similar or different characteristics
among the elements or concepts which have been
learned.
 3.3 Theory of Constructivism
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Constructivism Theory assumed that knowledge will

not exist outside the mind, but can be created in the
mind based on actual experience.
 Constructivism
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Definition:
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded
on the premise that, by reflecting our own
experiences, we construct our own understanding
of the world we live in. Each of us generates our
own ‘rules’ and ‘mental models’, which we use to
make sense of our experience. Learning, therefore,
is simply the process of adjusting our mental
models to accommodate new experiences.
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Theory of Constructivism is identical to the Theory

of Cognitive Constructivism or Constructivism.
According to Von Glaserfeld(1991), the concept of
constructivism is based on the following
assumptions:
Knowledge can be formed by individuals who take
their own initiatives.
The aim to form knowledge is to adapt oneself in
the environment.
The process of knowledge formation is the result of
individual experience.
 Guiding principles of constructivism:
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1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore,

learning must start with the issues around which
students are actively trying to construct
meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well
as parts. And parts must be understood in the
context of wholes. Therefore, the learning
process focuses on primary concepts, not
isolated facts.
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3. In order to teach well, we must understand the

mental models that students use to perceive the
world and the assumptions they make to support
those models.
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4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to

construct his or her own meaning, not just
memorize the ‘right’ answers and regurgitate
someone else’s meaning. Since education is
inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way
to measure learning is to make the assessment part
of the learning process, ensuring it provides
students with information on the quality of their
learning.
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The idea of constructivism was originated from

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory and
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
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(1) Schema
 Referred as a structured clusters of information
(represent event, concept, action or process)
 The way to organize and simplify information
 Individual’s schema=>characteristics of individual
behaviour (eg: action, language, thinking, opinion or
idea) varies according to the process of learning.
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(2) Adaptation and Equilibration

Individual in his environment = existing
schemas satisfy all his needs during self-
adaptation process (no need to change the
present schema)
Individual in a new environment = existing
schemas cannot fulfill adaptation process (need
to change schemas to fulfill the needs,
equilibration will be restored again)
Adaptation => a process of change in schema to
meet the requirement of a certain situation
-The process of change
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in an individual’s
behaviour (schema) to adapt himself in
the environment => learning process
- During this process, equilibration is
equivalent to the internal motivating
force (learning motivation)
- Piaget referred this internal motivating
force as intrinsic motivation of individual
to adapt himself in the environment
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(3) Assimilation and Accommodation

 During adaptation process, individual’s schemes will slowly
change.
 Two forms of adaptation are assimilation and
accommodation.
 Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing schemes.
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 Accommodation: Altering existing schemes or creating new

ones in response to new information.
 Both of these are interrelated and complementary .

 To use assimilation or accommodation depends on decision

involving individual’s cognitive structure.
 Cognitive structure is individual’s existed experience.
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
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ZPD is the pupils’ performance , under the help of

adults or cooperation from their peers; would be
better than using their own ability alone, and in
this way, they can achieve a higher level of
potential development.
Pupils’ early understanding normally comes from
the support of educated adults, teachers or peers
through interaction.
This will enable pupils to make further progress in
the zone of proximal development, which is beyond
their independent ability to achieve.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
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Zone of Proximal
Pupils’ actual Potential
Development
development development
(able to learn and
(able to learn and limit (unable to
perform various
perform task learn or perform any
tasks with help
individually) task even with help)
from others

Most difficult task

Most difficult task
that can be
that can be
learned or
learned or
performed with
performed
help from
individually
others
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According to Theory of Constructivism,

knowledge can be formed through the
process of inter-influence between
previous learning and related new
learning.
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Theory of Constructivism also emphasized the

metacognitive development process. (plan, direct,
control, examine and evaluate all cognitive
thinking processes, covering critical and creative
thinking, so as to make appropriate decision to
solve problems).
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In order to achieve the aim of effective learning, pupils

need to plan their own learning strategy, think of the
effective way to learn, as well as to evaluate and
make reflection regarding what they have learned
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Under constructivism, knowledge is not used to

clarify reality, but it is used as a means to
rationalize the action and experience which an
individual undergoes.

Thus in a similar situation, knowledge acquired may

not be the same for every individual.
 How constructivism impacts learning:
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Curriculum—Constructivism calls for the elimination

of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes
using curricula customized to the students’ prior
knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem
solving.
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Instruction—Under the theory of constructivism,

educators focus on making connections between
facts and fostering new understanding in students.
Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to
student responses and encourage students to
analyze, interpret, and predict information.
Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions
and promote extensive dialogue among students.
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Assessment—Constructivism calls for the elimination

of grades and standardized testing. Instead,
assessment becomes part of the learning process so
that students play a larger role in judging their own
progress.
 3.4 Social Learning Theory
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Social perspective or Neobehaviourism

suggested that learning theory should
integrate behaviourism and cognitivism.

Bandura: Learning should go through the process of

modelling (observation and imitation process)
 Three basic elements of Social Learning Theory:
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1. Individual process intrinsic motivation

2. Environment external stimulus
3. Behaviour individual’s action

Learning =I x B x E (the interaction between an

individual’s intrinsic motivation and
behaviour with his environment).
 Bandura’s Modelling Theory
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Children in general normally imitate the model and

even react more agressive than the aggressive
behaviour they have observed.
Learning through observation is a basic form of
human behaviour.
Observational learning, also called social learning
theory, occurs when an observer’s behaviour
changes after viewing the behaviour of a model. An
observer’s bahaviour can be affected by the positive
or negative consequences—called vicarious
reinforcement or vicarious punishment—of a
model’s behaviour.
Process of Observational Learning
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Imitation:
Reinforcement: Tendency
Pupil B of pupil A
Pupil observes Praise from
recites to recite
A poem teacher
poem
strengthened
Learning Process Through Observation
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Modelling:
Bandura identified four basic elements in the
learning process through observation, namely:
1. Attention---concentration while observing
2. Retention—sustain the behaviour observed in his
memory.
3. Reproduction—repeat his imitated behaviour.
4. Reinforcement/Motivation—satisfaction, reward
 How Observational Learning Impacts
Learning:
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Curriculum—students must get a chance to observe

and model the behaviour that leads to a positive
reinforcement.
Instruction—Educators must encourage
collaborative learning, since much of learning
happens within important social and
environmental contexts.
Assessment—A learned behaviour often cannot be
performed unless there is the right environment
for it. Educators must provide the incentive and
the supportive environment for the behaviour to
happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be
accurate