Topic 1

Motor functions of spinal cord.The cord

reflexes.Cortical and Brain Stem control of motor
function
 Hierarchy of Motor Control

LEVEL FUNCTION STRUCTURES

high strategy association areas of
neocortex, basal ganglia

middle tactics motor cortex, cerebellum

low execution brain stem, spinal cord

1.1Organisation of spinal cord for motor
function
1.1Organisation of the spinal cord for motor functions
• Alpha motoneurons
innervate
extrafusal muscle fiber
s
• Gamma motoneurons
innervate intrafusal
muscle fibers found
within the
muscle spindle.
1.2.Muscle sensory receptors-Muscle spindels and Golgi
tendon Organs-roles
• Length 3-10 mm
• Built around 3-12 intrafusal muscle fibers
• Sensory Innervation of MS
• MS can be excited in two ways:
• 1.Lenghtening of whole muscle
• 2.Contraction of end portion of spindle’s intrafusal fibers

2 types of intrafusal fibers

a) 1.nuclear bag muscle fibers
b) 2.nuclear chain fibers
Static response
• Excitation of primary endings on the nuclear chain fibers and
• Discharge at the same rate if muscle is stretched
• Maintain the same length of the muscle
Dynamic response
• Excitation of primary endings on the nuclear bag fibers
• Discharge most rapidly while muscle is stretched and less rapidly
during sustained stretch
Stretch reflexes

• Dynamic
• Static

• It causes the degree of muscle

contraction to remain constant
 Golgi receptors
Golgi tendon organs

1. Embedded in tendons – in series with muscle fibers 

measure tension

2. Excite golgi tendon  IB afferent incr firing  inhibits

alpha MN (relaxation) = Golgi tendon/inverse myotatic
reflex

• Lenghtening reaction
• Equalize contractile force
Motor Areas
Motor Areas
• the primary motor cortex is the main contributor to generating
neural impulses that pass down to the spinal cord and control
the execution of movement. However, some of the other motor
cortical fields also play a role in this function.
• the premotor cortex preparation for movement, the sensory
guidance of movement, the spatial guidance of reaching, or the
direct control of some movements with an emphasis on control
of proximal and trunk muscles of the body.
• the supplementary motor area (or SMA), planning of
movement, the planning of sequences of movement, and the
coordination of the two sides of the body such as in bi-manual
coordination.
Additional motor areas
• Broca’s area
• Area for hand skills
• Head rotation area
• Voluntary eye movements area
 Descending (Motor) Pathways
• Descending tracts deliver motor instructions from
the brain to the spinal cord
• Divided into two groups
• Pyramidal, or corticospinal, tracts
• Extrapyramidal, or extracorticospinal pathways,
essentially all others
• Motor pathways involve two neurons
• Upper motor neuron (UMN)
• Lower motor neuron (LMN)
 Corticospinal
tracts

1. Location of UMN cell

body in cerebral
cortex
2. Decussation of UMN
axon in pyramids or
at level of exit of LMN
3. Synapse of UMN and
LMN occurs in
anterior horn of s.c.
4. LMN axon exits via
anterior root
 Pyramidal (Corticospinal) Tracts
• Originate in the precentral gyrus of brain (primary motor area) - cell
body of the UMN located in precentral gyrus
• Pyramidal neuron is the UMN-Its axon forms the corticospinal tract
• UMN synapses in the anterior horn with LMN
• Some UMN decussate in pyramids = Lateral corticospinal tracts
• Others decussate at other levels of s.c. = Anterior corticospinal
tracts
• LMN (anterior horn motor neurons)
• Exits spinal cord via anterior root
• Activates skeletal muscles
• Regulates fast and fine (skilled) movements
Other fiber pathways from motor cortex
1. Axons from Betz cells send short collaterals back to the cortex
2. Cortex-caudate nucleus,putamen-brain stem,spinal cord-body
postural muscle contraction
3. To red nuclei of the midbrain-spinal cord (rubrospinal tract)
4. To reticular substance and vestibular nuclei of brain stem-
crerebellum,spinal column
5. To pontile nuclei-cerebellum(pontocerebelar fibers)
6. To inferior olivari nuclei-cerebelum(olivocerebellar febers)
Incoming fibers to the motor cortex

• Subcortical fibers from adjacent regions of the cerebral cortex, especially from (a) the somatosensory
areas of the parietal cortex, (b) the adjacent areas of the frontal cortex anterior to the motor cortex,
and (c) the visual and auditory cortices.
• 2. Subcortical fibers that arrive through the corpus callosum from the opposite cerebral hemisphere.
These fibers connect corresponding areas of the cortices in the two sides of the brain.
• 3. Somatosensory fibers that arrive directly from the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus. These
fibers relay mainly cutaneous tactile signals and joint and muscle signals from the peripheral body.
• 4. Tracts from the ventrolateral and ventroanterior nuclei of the thalamus, which in turn receive
signals from the cerebellum and basal ganglia. These tracts provide signals that are necessary for
coordination among the motor control functions of the motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.
• 5. Fibers from the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. These fibers control the general level of
excitability of the motor cortex in the same way they control the general level of excitability of most
other regions of the cerebral cortex.
Red nucleus
• From the primary motor cortex through the corticorubral
tract, as well as branching fibers from the corticospinal
tract as it passes through the mesencephalon. These fibers
synapse in the lower portion of the red nucleus, the
magnocellular portion, which contains large neurons
similar in size to the Betz cells in the motor cortex. These
large neurons then give rise to the rubrospinal tract, which
crosses to the opposite side in the lower brain stem and
follows a course immediately adjacent and anterior to the
corticospinal tract into the lateral columns of the spinal
cord.
• The rubrospinal fibers terminate mostly on the interneurons
of the intermediate areas of the cord gray matter, along with
the corticospinal fibers, but some of the rubrospinal fibers
terminate directly on anterior motor neurons, along with
some corticospinal fibers
 Extrapyramidal Motor Tracts
• Includes all motor pathways not part of the pyramidal system
• Upper motor neuron (UMN) originates in nuclei deep in cerebrum (not in
cerebral cortex)
• UMN does not pass through the pyramids!
• LMN is an anterior horn motor neuron
• This system includes
• Rubrospinal
• Vestibulospinal
• Reticulospinal
• Tectospinal tracts
• Regulate:
• Axial muscles that maintain balance and posture
• Muscles controlling coarse movements of the proximal portions of limbs
• Head, neck, and eye movement
 Extrapyramidal Tract

Note:
1. UMN cell body location
2. UMN axon decussates in pons
3. Synapse between UMN and LMN
occurs in anterior horn of sc
3. LMN exits via ventral root
4. LMN axon stimulates skeletal
muscle
Extrapyramidal (Multineuronal) Pathways
• Reticulospinal tracts – originates at reticular formation of brain;
maintain balance
• Rubrospinal tracts – originate in ‘red nucleus’ of midbrain; control
flexor muscles
• Tectospinal tracts - originate in superior colliculi and mediate head
and eye movements towards visual targets (flash of light)
Truncus cerebri( Brain Stem)
Reticular & Vestibular nuclei

Excite axial muscles

Excite axial muscle

Inhibit axial muscles

Vestibular sensation

1. Cochlea
2. Three semicircular canals
3. Utricle
4. Saccule
 Topic 2

• Contribution of the cerebellum and basal ganglia to overall motor

control.Cerebral blood flow.Cerebrospinal fluid and brain metabolism
Afferent Pathways From Other Parts of the Brain

1. Corticopontocerebellar
2. Olivocerebellar
3. Vestibulocerebellar
4. reticulocerebellar
Afferent Pathways From the Periphery
1. Ventral pinocerebellar tract
2. Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
3. Spinoreticular
4. Spino-olivary
Output signals.Deep cerebellar nuclei
• Dentate
• Interposed
• Fastigial
 Efferent pathways
1. Fastigial n.-medullary,pontile of brain stem
2. 1.Interpus n.-2.thalamic ventroanterior ,
ventrolateral nuclei-3.cortex-4.midline
structures of the thalamus-5.basal
ganglia,red nucleus,reticular formation
3. Dentate n.-thalamic ventroanterior ,
ventrolateral nuclei-cortex
1. equilibrium ,postural atitudes
2. helps coordinate the reciprocal contractions
of agonist and antagonist muscles in the
peripheral portions of the limbs, especially
in the hands, fingers, and thumbs.
3. helping coordinate sequential motor
activities initiated by the cerebral
cortex.
Functional unit of the cerebellar cortex
 Functional subdivision of the cerebellum

• Vestibulocerebellum (oldest part of the cerebellum): flocculonodular lobe and its connections
with the lateral vestibular nuclei. It is involved in vestibular reflexes (such as the vestibuloocular
reflex) and in postural maintenance.
• Spinocerebellum: the vermis & intermediate zones of the cerebellar cortex, as well as the
fastigial and interposed nuclei. it receives major inputs from the spinocerebellar tract. Its output
projects to rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, and reticulospinal tracts. It is involved in the integration of
sensory input with motor commands to produce adaptive motor coordination.
• Cerebrocerebellum. : lateral hemispheres and the dentate nuclei. Its name derives from its
extensive connections with the cerebral cortex, via the pontine nuclei (afferents) and the VL
thalamus (efferents). It is involved in the planning and timing of movements. In addition, the
cerebrocerebellum is involved in the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
Abnormalities of the cerebellum
• Decomposition of movement. Most of our movements involve the coordinated activity of
many muscle groups and different joints to produce a smooth trajectory of the body part through
space. Patients with cerebellar dysfunction are unable to produce these coordinated, smooth
movements. Instead, they often break the movements down into their component parts in order to
execute the desired trajectory. For example, touching one’s finger to one’s nose requires the
coordinated activity of shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints. Cerebellar patients must first perform the
shoulder movement, then the elbow movement, and finally the wrist movement in sequence, rather
than as one, uniform motion.

• Intention tremor. When making a movement to a target, patients often produce an involuntary
tremor that increases as they approach closer to the target. For example, if reaching for a cup, the
hand starts out in a direct line toward the cup; as it gets closer, however, the hand begins to move
back and forth as it attempts to make contact with the cup.
Abnormalities of the cerebellum
• Dysdiadochokinesia. Patients have difficulty
performing rapidly alternating movements, such as
hitting a surface rapidly and repeatedly with the palm
and back of the hand.
• Cerebellar nistagmus
• Hypotonia
• Deficits in motor learning. Experimental
studies have demonstrated that cerebellar damage
causes deficits in motor learning in both human
patients and experimental animals.
The Basal Ganglia and their motor functions
1. Caudate
2. Putamen
3. Globus pallidus
4. Substantia nigra
5. Subthalamus
The Putamen circuit
1. Role-in executing patterns of motor activity
2. Premotor and supplemental, somatosensory areas

Putamen

Globus palidus

V/ant/lat nuclei of thalamus

Primary motor cortex, premotor and supplementary

areas
Abnormal function in the putamen circuit
• Athetosis-https • Globus palidus
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-
kVmaMMNmE
• Hemiballismus-https
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fC • Subtalamus
L7RWaC3RA
• Chorea-https • Putamen
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsI
QFeYOkAg
• Parkinson
• Substantia nigra
The Caudate circuit
• Role in cognitive control of sequences of motor
patterns
1. Cerebral cortex

2. Caudate nucleus

3. Globus palidus

4. V/ant/lat nuclei of thalamus

5. Prefrontal,premotor,supplementary arreas
Functions of specific neurotransmitter substances in
the basal ganglia system
1. DOPAMINE
subs. Nigra - N.caudatus,putamen
2. GABA
N.caudatus,putamen –gl.pallidus, subs nigra
3.ACH
Cortex- N.caudatus,putamen
4. Nor,Ser,Enk
Parkinson’s disease
• Rigidity • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=sJqKvajUC3k
• Involuntary tremor
• Akinesia
• Postural instability
• other:fatique,dysphagia,speech
disorders