Biopsychology: The next 5 weeks

Today
13th Nov Neural Communication I
1. Resting potentials
20th Nov Neural Communication I
2. Action potentials
27th Nov Neural Communication III
Synapses
4th Dec Drug Actions
11th Dec Sensory Inputs
 BIOPSYCHOLOGY: LECTURE 6

NEURAL COMMUNICATION I: RESTING

POTENTIALS

My office hours: 9:30 – 12:30 on Fridays

n.ray@mmu.ac.uk
Learning Objectives
Define what a membrane potential is, how it can be
measured, and what it tells us about the state of the neuron.
Define what it means for a neuron to be polarized.

Describe the distribution of ions around the membrane of a

charged neuron at rest.
Explain how the selective permeability of the membrane and
the sodium-potassium pump contribute to this distribution of
ions.
Key Vocabulary
 Neuron  Membrane potential
 Dendrites  Polarized

 Soma (cell body)  Resting potential (-50mv/-80mV)

 Selective permeability
 Axon
 Sodium ion (Na+)
 Terminal buttons
 Potassium ion (K+)
 Myelin
 Protein ion (A-)
 Cell membrane
 Chloride ion (Cl-)
 Sodium-potassium pump
QUICK RECAP OF NEURONAL
STRUCTURE
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output

Receive signals Send chemical signals to

from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output

Receive signals Send chemical signals to

from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Soma Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Soma Carries electrical signal

The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Axon
Soma Carries electrical signal
The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
Nucleus (insulating fat)

Axon
Soma Carries electrical signal
The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
The Neuron Axon hillock, integrate inputs, “decides” output
Dendrites Terminal boutons
Receive signals Send chemical signals to
from other neurons other neurons.

Myelin
(insulating fat)

Axon
Soma Carries electrical signal
The cell body (the ‘Action Potential’)
AN OVERVIEW OF HOW A NEURON
COMMUNICATES
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential

Chemical signal arrives

from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
The signal is
integrated at the
axon hillock

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
The signal is
The axon
integrated at hillock
the
must
axon now make a
hillock
decision

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
Is this signal big
The signal is enough to reach
The axon
integrated at hillock
the the threshold at
must
axon now make a
hillock which this neuron
decision can produce
action potentials?

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
Is this signal big
The signal is Wasenough to reach
the information
The axon
integrated at hillock
the thatthe threshold
arrived from atthe
must
axon now make a
hillock which this cells
previous neuron
decision can produce
important enough to
action potentials?
be sent along the
axon??

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
Is this signal big
The signal is Wasenough to reach
the information
The axon
integrated at hillock
the thatthe threshold
arrived from atthe
must
axon now make a
hillock which this cells
previous neuron
decision can produce
important enough to
action potentials?
be sent along the
axon??

Let’s assume
the answer was
The chemical signal yes
causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential
The signal is
The axon
integrated at hillock
the
must
axon now make a
hillock
decision

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
 When the electrical signal
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential arrives at the terminal
boutons, it causes the
The signal is synaptic vesicles to merge
The axon
integrated at hillock
the with the membrane
must
axon now make a
hillock
decision

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
 When the electrical signal
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential arrives at the terminal
boutons, it causes the
The signal is synaptic vesicles to merge
The axon
integrated at hillock
the with the membrane
must
axon now make a
hillock
decision

The chemical signal

causes an electrical signal
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
 When the electrical signal
The Neuron: A very basic overview of the action potential arrives at the terminal
boutons, it causes the
The signal is synaptic vesicles to merge
The axon
integrated at hillock
the with the membrane
must
axon now make a
hillock
decision

Neurotransmitters are then

The chemical signal
released into the extracellular
causes an electrical signal
space, ready to communicate with
to be generated on this
Chemical signal arrives the next cell
neuron’s dendrites
from a previous neuron
Pyramidal hippocampal neuron 40x, MethoxyRoxy. Bar 100 um app
Chemical signal arrives
at the dendrites

Pyramidal hippocampal neuron 40x, MethoxyRoxy. Bar 100 um app

Chemical signal arrives
at the dendrites,
generating an electrical
signal

Electrical signal
accumulates at the
axon hillock

Pyramidal hippocampal neuron 40x, MethoxyRoxy. Bar 100 um app

Chemical signal arrives
at the dendrites,
generating an electrical
signal

Action potential is
sent along the
Electrical signal axon so that
accumulates at the chemical signal
axon hillock can be released
from the terminal
Pyramidal hippocampal neuron 40x, MethoxyRoxy. Bar 100 um app
boutons
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIGqp6_PG6k
NEXT, WE’LL LOOK AT THAT IN
MORE DETAIL
Neural Communication
A neuron activates another
neuron by releasing chemicals
called neurotransmitters across
When a neuron is activated, it the gap (lecture 8).
transmits an electrical impulse
called an action potential along its
length (lecture 7)

http://www.mindsmachine.com/av03.01.html
A Neuron
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQa_sg4zN88
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9L2-B-aluCE
Neural Communication
A neuron activates another
neuron by releasing chemicals
called neurotransmitters across
When a neuron is activated, it the gap (lecture 8).
transmits an electrical impulse
called an action potential along its
length (lecture 7)

http://www.mindsmachine.com/av03.01.html
A Neuron
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQa_sg4zN88
Today: the neuron before a signal arrives https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9L2-B-aluCE
THE RESTING NEURON
Before we can begin to understand the neuron during an action potential, we
must understand it at rest
IMPORTANT: A neuron at rest is a balance of electrochemical forces
Before we can begin to understand the neuron during an action potential, we
must understand it at rest
IMPORTANT: A neuron at rest is a balance of electrochemical forces

The balance is achieved by the movement of ions

BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms
BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms
BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms

Electrons have a negative charge

Protons have a positive charge

BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms

Electrons have a negative charge

Protons have a positive charge

If an atom has more protons than neutrons, it’s net charge is:__________________
BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms

Electrons have a negative charge

Protons have a positive charge

If an atom has more electrons than protons, it’s net charge is:__________________
BUT WHAT IS AN ION??
Ions: electrically charged atoms

Sodium Chloride
LET’S LOOK AT HOW IONS
INTERACT IN OUR NEURONS
The resting membrane potential
The resting membrane potential
What is outside the cell?
The resting membrane potential
Extracellular fluid
The resting membrane potential Extracellular fluid
The resting membrane potential
What is inside the cell?
The resting membrane potential
Potassium

K
K

K
K

K
K
K
The resting membrane potential
Potassium

A-
+

K
K
A-
A-

K
K A-
A- A-

K
K
K A-
Organic proteins

A-
The resting membrane potential
Potassium

A-
+

K
K
A-
A-

K
K A-
A- A-

K
K
K A-
Organic proteins

A-
SO, INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE CELL
ARE LOTS OF POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE CHARGES
Na+ and Cl- are on the outside
K+ and A- are on the inside
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
-
- -
- -
- -
+
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
-
- -
- -
- - +
+
-
+
+
-

-
+ -
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
- • There are more negatively
- charged ions inside the cell
-
- -
- - +
+
-
+
+
-

-
+ -
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
- • There are more negatively
- charged ions inside the cell
-
- -
• There are more positively
- - +
charged ions outside the cell
+
-
+
+
-

-
+ -
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
- • There are more negatively
- charged ions inside the cell
-
- -
• There are more positively
- - +
charged ions outside the cell
+
-
+ • This difference in charge
+ creates a ‘potential’
-

-
+ - - +
What would happen if there was a difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell?

+
- • There are more negatively
- charged ions inside the cell
-
- -
• There are more positively
- - +
charged ions outside the cell
+
-
+ • This difference in charge
+ creates a ‘potential’
-

-
+ - - +
Membrane potentials
Some theoretical examples (electrical gradients):

No membrane
-
- potential
0mv
(‘flat battery’)

- Negative
+ At rest -70mv membrane potential
Negative polarity
of the cell’s interior
(cell is charged)

+ Positive membrane
- +40mv Potential
(cell is charged)
 Electrical potentials are

Membrane potentials
measured in volts. The potential
in a nerve is tiny (compared to a
battery), so it is measured in
Some theoretical examples (electrical gradients): millivolts

No membrane
-
- potential
0mv
(‘flat battery’)

- Negative
+ At rest -70mv membrane potential
Negative polarity
of the cell’s interior
(cell is charged)

+ Positive membrane
- +40mv Potential
(cell is charged)
 Electrical potentials are

Membrane potentials
measured in volts. The potential
in a nerve is tiny (compared to a
battery), so it is measured in
Some theoretical examples (electrical gradients): millivolts

No membrane
-
- potential
0mv
(‘flat battery’)

- Negative
+ At rest -70mv membrane potential
Negative polarity
of the cell’s interior
(cell is charged)

+ Positive membrane
- +40mv Potential
(cell is charged)
The Resting Potential
+ + +
-50mV
-
+ + - -70mv
- -
+ +
-80mV
- +
At rest
• The membrane potential of a neuron is -70mv.
- The inside of the cell is more negative than the
outside of the cell.
• The neuron is said to be polarized.
• A polarised neuron has the ability to
communicate.
NOW WE KNOW WHAT THE RESTING MEMBRAIN
POTENTIAL IS, THE NEXT QUESTION IS: HOW
DOES THE CELL MAINTAIN IT?
Answer: Passively
First, let’s look at the structure of the membrane

+
The selective permeability of the
-
- - membrane:
- -
-
- The neuronal cell
+
+ membrane is
+
+ -
selectively
permeable.
-
-
The four ions
+
pass through it
- with different
levels of ease…
First, let’s look at the structure of the membrane lipid bilayer

+
The selective permeability of the
-
- - membrane:
-
Channels- in the membrane can be opened
-
-
and closed. The neuronal cell
+
• Ligand-gated+ ion channels:membrane
open is
when molecules bind to the channel
• +Voltage-gated
+
selectively
- ion channels: open
permeable.
when there is a change in voltage in the
surrounding
- membrane
-
The four ions
+
pass through it
- with different
levels of ease…
There are two forces that can influence the movement of ions
Electrostatic pressure: attraction between molecules
Diffusion: movement of molecules from high to
with opposite charges, and repulsion between
molecules with the same charge. low concentration.

+ -

+ +
- -
A-
 The selectively permeable membrane

Inside the cell Outside the cell

Protein ions cannot pass A- A-

through the membrane. They
remain inside the cell. A- A-
Na+ Na+ Sodium ions pass
through the membrane
Na+ Na+ but with difficulty.

Cl-
Cl- Cl-
potassium ions pass through K+ Chloride ions pass through the
the membrane with ease.
K+ K+ membrane with ease.
K+
The selectively permeable membrane
Cl-
Cl-
This means that:
A- All protein ions (A-) are inside
A- A- the cell.
Cl- A-
Cl-

Cl-
It also means that most
(not all) chloride ions are
outside the cell.
 Diffusion: causes ions to flow from areas of high to low
concentration, along their concentration gradient
 Electrostatic pressure, causes ions to flow towards oppositely
charged areas
NOW WE KNOW WHAT THE RESTING MEMBRAIN
POTENTIAL IS, THE NEXT QUESTION IS: HOW
DOES THE CELL MAINTAIN IT?
Answer: and actively
The sodium-potassium pump
The cell membrane contains special transporter molecules that can ‘pump’
certain ions into or out of the cell

Cell
membrane

Ions transporter
2) The sodium-potassium pump
Specifically: 3 Na+ / 2 K+
Sodium (Na+) ions are transported out of the cell energy

Potassium (K+) ions are transported into the cell

2) The sodium-potassium pump This causes:
Na+
Na+
Cl-
• Most sodium ions (Na+) to be
Cl-
outside of the cell (10x)
K+
K+ K+ A-
A-
A-
K+
A- Na+
• Most potassium ions (K+) to
Cl- K+
Na+
Cl- A-
be inside the cell.

Cl-
And free ion channels for K+
Na+ but not for Na+
Na+

The resting neuron therefore ends up with all protein

and most potassium ions inside the cell, and most
sodium and chloride ions outside the cell.
Nature of biological process of electrical conduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=omXS1bjYLMI
• Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley (1950) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k48jXzFGMc8

• Nobel Prize, 1963

• Measured conduction properties of giant squid axon

Laboratory in
Cambridge and at
the Laboratory of
the Marine
Biological
Association in
Plymouth
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRKgbwl8vCY
Summary
 The membrane potential is the difference in charge between the
inside and outside of the cell.
 This is determined by the distribution of four ions: sodium (Na+),
Potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-) and protein ions (A-).
 The selective permeability of the cell membrane and the sodium-
potassium pump cause all protein ions and most potassium ions to
be inside the cell, and most sodium and chloride ions to be outside the
cell.
 The inside of the cell is therefore more negative than the outside.

 The negative membrane potential means that the cell is charged

and ready to fire.
Any questions?

Reading

• Kalat sections: 2.1(pages 28-33) & 2.2 (pages 37-40)

• Pinel section: 4.1, section 3.2 will also be useful

If interested… in more about the ATP (sodium
potassium pump) look at the following links:

• Morth JP, Pedersen BP, Toustrup-Jensen MS, Sorensen

TLM, Petersen J, Andersen JP, Vilsen B, Nissen P.
Crystal Structure of the Sodium-Potassium Pump.
Nature 2007; 450: 1043-1049

• Kim D. ATPases: Sodium/Potassium Pump (E2-2K*Pi

Configuration). Wired [Online]. Avail from: http://
www.doe-mbi.ucla.edu
/~yeates/153AH_2009_project/kim.html [2009]