1

BIOLOGY, SPEED OF A NEURON IMPULSE

CHAPTER 2: Biological
BEHAVIOR &
Bases of Behaviour MIND Range from 2 (3KPH) to 180 MPH (290 KPH)
12Measured in milliseconds (thousandths of a
Biological Psychologists also call themselves: second)

Behavioural neuroscientists NEURAL IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL)

Neuropsychologists
electrical signal travelling down the axon
Behaviour geneticists
Physiological psychologists
Biopsychologists
NEURAL COMMUNICATION
NEURONS (Nerve Cells)

Basic unit of the nervous system

Basic building block of N.S.

THRESHOLD

A level of stimulation required to trigger a neural

impulse

ALL OR NONE RESPONSE

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full

PARTS OF A NEURON: strength response) or not firing.
CELL BODY (SOMA) HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE
Body of the neuron ; carries the genetic
information (DNA)

DENDRITE

Pick up signals from neuron ; receptors

Receives messages from other cells

AXON

Electrical impulse that runs through the myelin

sheath
Passes messages away from the cell body to other
neurons, muscles, or glands

MYELIN SHEATH
Helps insulate the axon ;allows the electrical
impulse to move quickly down the axon
Covers the axon of some neurons & helps speed
neural impulses
Multiple sclerosis- a disease that affects the
person’s ability to control movement (arm & leg)
NODES OF RANVIER
Gaps in between the myelin sheath
speed up propagation of Action potentials along the
axon via saltatory conduction
SYNAPSE
The junction between the axon tip of the sending
neuron & the dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called
synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Present in the synapse (small vesicles)
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps
between neurons.
When release by the sending neuron, the
neurotransmitters travel across the synapse & bind
to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby
influencing whether that neuron will generate a
neural impulse
 2

THE NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE

SYSTEMS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

REUPTAKE PERIPHERAL N.S.

A process in which the sending neuron normally The sensory & motor neurons that connect the
reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules central N.S. to the rest of the body

AUTONOMIC SOMATIC
Two subtypes: also called Skeletal N.S.
Sympathetic - arouses
Parasympathetic – division
that calms the body,
conserving its energy
Controls self-regulated Controls voluntary
action of internal organs & movements of skeletal
glands muscles

HOW DRUGS & OTHER CHEMICALS ALTER

NEUROTRANSMISSION
AGONIST VS. ANTAGONIST

AGONIST

Mimics the neurotransmitter, opening receptor site

ANTAGONIST

Blocks neurotransmitter from opening receptor site

CENTRAL N.S.

Body’s master control unit

PARTS OF CNS:

BRAIN

Center of the system of control in the body

SPINAL CORD
 3

NERVES

Bundled axons that form neural “cables” HYPOTHALAMUS

connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, & sense
organs Brain region controlling the pituitary gland

ADRENAL GLAND

SENSORY NEURONS (AFFERENT NEURONS) Inner part helps trigger the “fight-or-flight”
response

PITUITARY GLAND

Secretes many different hormones, some of which

affect other glands

THYROID GLAND

Affects metabolism

PARATHYROID

Neurons that carry incoming information from the
sensory receptors to the brain & spinal cord
MOTOR NEURON (EFFERENT NEURONS)
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the
brain & spinal cord to the muscles & glands
INTERNEURONS
Neurons within the brain & spinal cord that
communicate internally & intervene between the
sensory inputs & motor outputs
Help regulate the level of calcium in the blood
PANCREAS
Regulates the level of sugar in the blood
TESTES
Secretes male sex hormones
OVARY
Secretes female sex hormones

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM STUDYING THE BRAIN, & OLDER BRAIN

FUNCTIONS
The body’s “slow” chemical communication
system LESION
A set of glands that secrete hormones into the Tissue destruction; an injury to neural tissue and
bloodstream can be either naturally occurring or deliberately
HORMONES produced.
to assess the probable function of an area
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the an electrode is surgically inserted into the area of
endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, interest.
and affect other tissues.
 4

THE TOOLS OF DISCOVERY: HAVING OUR

HEADS EXAMINED
RECORDING
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM
c (EEG)
An amplified recording of the wave of electrical
activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These
waves are measured by electrodes placed on the
scalp
A technology for studying the activity of the brain
through recordings from electrodes placed on the
scalp.
WHAT IT DOES?
EEG recordings measure the activity of large
numbers of cells, known as a field potential.
can be used to generate maps of activity, making it
possible to pinpoint the source of abnormal activity
can aid in diagnoses of many disorders, including
schizophrenia, dementias, epilepsy, and attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder
SINGLE-CELL RECORDINGS
c
Both extracellular and intracellular events from a
single neuron can be assessed using tiny
microelectrodes surgically implanted in the area of
interest. The microelectrodes are made from either
fine wires or tiny, fluid-filled micropipettes or glass
tubes. These electrodes can identify the
occurrence of electrical signals within a single
neuron without contamination of activity from
adjacent cells. Electrodes can be permanently
implanted, allowing animals free range of
movement during stimulation
Scientists use this type of information to learn
about the brain correlates of memory and
navigation.
Extremely precise but is time-consuming &
invasive ; too focused
IMAGING
CAT (COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY)
c SCAN

A technique that used

magnetic fields & radio
waves to produce
EVOKED POTENTIALS c computer-generated
images of soft tissue.
An application of basic EEG technology that is (detailed knowledge about structure)
used in the assessment of sensory activity is invented in 1972 by
the recording of evoked potentials. This Godfrey Hounsfield and
technique allows researchers to correlate the Allan Cormack.
activity of cortical sensory neurons recorded “Tomography” comes
through scalp electrodes with stimuli presented from the Greek words
to the participant. tomos, or slice, and
graphia, to write or describe.
MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
c (MEG) used mainly to diagnose neurological conditions
allows researchers such as tumours, blood clots, degenerative disease
to record the and the location of strokes
brain’s magnetic dimensional image of horizontal sections can then
activity (Cohen, be produced
1972). Consists of a circular
added advantage of arrangement of x-ray
being silent, as opposed to the loud hammering emitters and detectors in
sound produced by the magnets used in MRI. which progressive scans
utilizes sensors known as superconducting through the brain can be
quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs, that taken
convert magnetic energy into electrical
impulses that can be recorded and analyzed.
 5

LIMITATIONS: evaluate the efficiency of treatment

diagnose diseases/disorders such as epilepsy,
Ct scan cannot distinguish between a living brain dementia, Alzheimer’s disease etc
and a dead one

Provides no information regarding activity levels in

the brain

MRI (MAGNETIC RESONANCE

c IMAGING)
Show brain anatomy . (detailed knowledge about
structure)
OLDER BRAIN STUCTURES
An imaging technique that provides very high-
resolution structural images. THE BRAINSTEM
it detects radiation from hydrogen molecules
present in all brain tissue in different BRAINSTEM
concentrations.
The oldest part of the central core of the brain,
beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters
the skull
is responsible for automatic survival functions
Connects spinal cord & fore brain

MEDULLA

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat &

breathing

PONS
fMRI (FUNCTIONAL MRI) c
Contains the reticular formation
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore,
RETICULAR FORMATION
brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
Show brain function as well as its structure a nerve network that travels through the brainstem &
A technology using a series of MRI images taken 1 thalamus & plays an important role in controlling arousal
to 4 seconds apart to assess the activity of the brain.
fMRI is generally considered preferable to PET
because fMRI does not expose the brain to
radioactivity. Powerful magnetic fields can pose a
mild risk, too, especially if repeated rapidly, but
they are less dangerous than radioactivity

THE THALAMUS
The brain’s sensory switchboard (for all your
PET (POSITRON EMISSION cTOMOGRAPHY) SCAN
senses except SMELL)
A visual display of brain activity that detects where located on top of the brainstem;
a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas
performs a given task (detailed knowledge about in the cortex & transmits replies to the cerebellum
function) & medulla
Measures brain activity based on the utilization of
radioactive glucose or oxygen ; mildly invasive
PET scans do not provide much structural detail,
but they do offer a clear picture of brain activity.
Red and yellow areas are most active, whereas blue
and black areas are least active.

WHAT CAN IT DETECT?

evaluate the brain functioning

 6

THE CEREBELLUM “LITTLE

c BRAIN” REWARD DEFICIENCY SYNDROME

Located at the rear of the brain stem;
Functions include processing sensory input &
coordinating movement output & balance,
enabling nonverbal learning & memory
involves dopamine resistance, a form of sensory
deprivation of the brain's reward or pleasure
mechanisms. The syndrome occurs because of an
individual's inability to derive reward from
ordinary, everyday activities

CEREBRUM (CEREBRAL CORTEX)

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
Doughnut-shaped neural system (including the
hippocampus, amygdala, & hypothalamus)
located below the cerebral hemispheres
Associated with emotions & drives
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells
covering the cerebral hemispheres
The body’s ultimate control & information
processing center
GLIAL CELLS (GLUE CELLS)

Cells in the NS that support, nourish, & protect

neurons ;
they also play a role in learning & thinking ;
schwann cell

HIPPOCAMPUS

Store memory; send those memories into short or

long term

AMYGDALA

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic

system; linked to emotion
aggression & fear

HYPOTHALAMUS

Influence the pituitary gland

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus
It directs several maintenance activities (eating,
drinking, body temperature) ; homeostasis
Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland, & is liked to emotion & reward

REWARD CENTERS

Amygdala & hippocampus

Dopamine is mostly produced in an area of the
brain called the ventral tegmental area (VTA)
 7

BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACES

SECTIONS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

(LOBES) THE BRAIN’S PLASTICITY
(NEUROPLASTICITY)
FRONTAL LOBE
The brain’s ability to change, especially during
Largest lobe childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by
contains the primary motor cortex, which controls building new pathways based on experience
voluntary movement
NEUROGENESIS
above the eyes
The formation of new neurons
OCCIPITAL LOBE
crucial when an embryo is developing, but also
vision / visual processing continues in certain brain regions after birth and
back of the head throughout our lifespan.

TEMPORAL LOBE LANGUAGE

auditory cortex Aphasia – is an impairment of language, usually caused by

above the ears left hemisphere damage to either to Broca’s area (impaired
hearing, speech production speaking) to Wernickes’s area (impaired understsanding)

PARIETAL LOBE

sensory information
top of the brain
heat, cold, touch, pain, & sense of body movement
 8

III) MEMBRANE STAINS

Chapter 3: Research Methods
These contain salts of various
and Physiological Psychology heavy metals that interact with the
axon membranes.
HISTOLOGICAL METHODS Discovered by Camillo Golgi ;
Histological methods provide means for observing the the commonly-used Golgi-Cox
structure, organization, and connections of individual cells stain uses silver.
This enables us to see the
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK branching of individual neurons
and trace their connections.
He conducted the first investigation of nerve tissue
Use if making a detailed structural analysis of a
under a microscope in 1674.
small number of single cells
HISTOLOGY
HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE
the study of microscopic structures and tissues
If you know where a pathway ends but would like
often staining tissue to see things better (structure,
to discover its point of origin
connections)
to trace a pathway from the thalamus, a structure
is fixation and sectioning, staining and examining
located near the center of the brain, back to the
the brain
retina of the eye
1. FIXATION AND SECTIONING 3. ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Autolytic (self-dissolving) enzymes dissolves the brain pass an electron beam to the tissue and examine it.
tissue after the death. First thing is to destroy those The image is captured on a photographic film
enzymes. scanning electrode microscope is 3-D but worst in
terms of the resolution
-Then, put the brain tissue in fixative (preserving fluid)
for preserving the tissue. Formalin is commonly used AUTOPSY (“to view for oneself”)
for that purpose. Formalin is made of formaldehyde:
stops autolytic enzymes, hardens brain tissue, prevents studying brain structure after someone is dead
infection (smells awful) (structure, function)

-Then, slice the brain tissue on a microtome (a tissue Simon LeVay

slicing device). Slices are very thin. They are prepared
used autopsy to examine an area of the brain
to look under light or electron microscope.
known as INAH-3
-Then, place the tissue on a microscope glass LeVay believed that the size of INAH-3 might be
used to differentiate between homosexual and
2. STAINING heterosexual males.
*Stains are applied to highlight structures of interest BRAIN STIMULATION
1. ELECTRICAL STIMULATION

Insert wire, apply electricity

can be applied during
neurosurgery
THREE TYPES OF STAINING: E.g stimulation of the
hypothalamus may produce
I) CELL-BODY STAINS (NISSL feeding, drinking, sexual arousal, and aggression
STAIN) suggesting an activational role

Developed by Franz Nissl Advantages

who discovered that dyes such as cresyl violet
would selectively reveal the cell bodies of brain Does not harm the brain
tissue. A valid way of investigating living function of
brain areas
II) MYELIN STAINS
Disadvantages
These selectively colour the
myelin sheath that surrounds Invasive & Crude- not easy to tell how far the
nerve cells and so fibre bundles are revealed. stimulation has spread
allow you to follow pathways carrying information
from one part of the brain to another by staining the
insulating material that covers many nerve fibers

2. OPTOGENETIC METHOD
more precise than chemical stimulation
used for inhibiting or stimulating the
activities of specific neurons
The photosensitive proteins are inserted to the
membrane of a neuron with a virus. When you
apply a light with certain color (wavelength),
the protein reacts and accordingly makes the
neuron more positively or negatively charged
2. REPEATED TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC
STIMULATION (rTMS)
A technique for stimulating the cortex at regular
intervals by applying a magnetic pulse through a
wire coil encased in plastic and placed on the
scalp.
non-invasive
can only stimulate the surface of the brain
inhibit a certain function, such as “hearing voices”
among some patients with schizophrenia & shown
promise in treating some cases of depression
BIOCHEMICAL METHODS
If a researcher wishes to investigate the effects of
chemical stimulation in the brain, these normal
protective mechanisms must be bypassed.
Obviously, some chemicals naturally gain access to
the brain, resulting in psychoactive effects. Many
other chemicals are blocked from exiting the blood
supply into neural tissue. For instance, most agents
used for cancer chemotherapy simply circulate
through the brain without leaving the blood supply,
adding to the challenges of treating brain tumors.
Different methods used to administer drugs to a
subject include eating, inhaling, chewing, and
injecting the drug. These methods result in the
delivery of very different concentrations of a drug
into the blood supply within a given period. For
research purposes, chemicals can be directly
administered to the brain through the surgical
implantation of micropipettes. This technique
allows researchers to observe the effects of
chemicals administered in an awake, freely moving
animal.
MICRODIALYSIS allows mono
GENETIC METHODS (Heredity vs. Environment)
9
1) TWIN STUDIES
This natural comparison provides a fair amount of
control because we can assume that twins enjoy
similar prenatal and postnatal environments.
Although twins are not exposed to completely
identical environments (parents may treat one twin
quite differently from another), the environments
experienced by twins are more similar than the
environments of non-twin siblings.
Comparisons between the two types of twins,
therefore, provide a sense of the extent of genetic
influence on a trait of interest
Monozygotic- identical twins
Dizygotic - fraternal twins
Concordant – both twins have the same phenomena
Discordant – one twin has the phenomena, the other twin
does not
If a disease / phenomena has genetic reasons, then
the concordance rate in monozygotic twins are
expected to be higher than the concordance rate in
dizygotic twin
2) ADOPTION STUDIES
used to assess the relative contributions of
heredity and environment to characteristics such
as intelligence and criminality.
genetic influences may be magnified by the similar
environments provided by adoptive parents.
Similarities to the biological parents suggest a role
for heredity, whereas similarities to the adoptive
parents suggest a role for the environment.
HERITABILITY, or the amount that a trait varies in a
population due to genetics, is still influenced by the
environment
3) STUDIES OF GENETICALLY-MODIFIED
Opiates, such as morphine and heroin, activate
receptors for naturally occurring substances known
as endorphins. Matthes et al. (1996) bred mice that
lacked the genes for producing some of the opiate
receptors. Their general behavior seemed
unaffected, but they did not experience any pain
relief when given morphine. They were incapable
of becoming addicted to morphine, and they
showed no withdrawal symptoms when morphine
administration was discontinued. We can therefore
conclude that certain aspects of an animal’s normal
reaction to morphine are dependent on the
existence of opiate receptors. Without these
receptors, pain reduction, addiction, and
withdrawal do not occur.
The knockout genes take the place of the normal
genes but fail to produce the specific protein. By
using this method, researchers can assess the roles
of particular genes and the proteins they encode.
 10

recording study the brain's response

to specific stimuli
Magnetoencephalograph Studying brain activity
y (MEG)
Single-cell recordings Identifying the stimulus
responsible for activating
an individual neuron
Electrical stimulation and Identifying behavior linked
lesion to a particular location in
STEM CELL the nervous system
Repeated transcranial Producing long-lasting
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can magnetic stimulation changes in cortical activity,
divide and differentiate into other types of cells (rTMS) linking behavior to a
potential of using stem cells to grow replacement particular location in the
tissue cortex.
Microdialysis Identifying particular
THREE SOURCES: chemicals in a very small
location
1) Embryonic stem cells
Twin and adoption Studying contributions of
usually obtained from embryos in the blastocyst studies genetic and nongenetic
stage, or about 5 days after conception in humans. factors to behavior
Pluripotent; they can differentiate into any type of Genetically-modified Studying the role of
tissue animals (knockout genes) particular genes and the
virtually immortal, as they can divide endlessly in proteins they produce
Stem Cells Growing replacement
the laboratory
tissue for repairing
will provoke an immune reaction in a recipient, just
damaged organs, including
like any other transplanted tissue the brain and spinal cord
2) Adult stem cells

retrieved from blood, nerve cells, muscle , the RESEARCH ETHICS

cornea and retina of the eye, some internal organs, Coercing people into serving as research
and skin participants, either for course credit or any other
less flexible than the embryonic cells, and can only incentive, is unacceptable.
differentiate into cells similar to their source Benefits for participation, including money, should
lack immortality, but are less likely to cause not be “excessive or inappropriate” (American
rejection by a tissue recipient. Psychological Association, 1992).
3) Stem Cells from Umbilical Cord Blood Participants must be informed at the outset that
they can leave the experiment at any point in time
contains blood-forming stem cells, which can without penalty.
renew themselves and differentiate into other types Debriefing
of cells.
1) HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
METHOD FUNCTION
Histology Studying the microscopic THE COMMON RULE
structure of the nervous
refers to a set of standards shared by seventeen federal
system
agencies (Center for Science, Technology, and Congress,
Autopsy Studying the structure of
the nervous system 2001)
following death INFORMED CONSENT
Computerized Studying structure and
tomography (CT) diagnosing structural To freely volunteer, a participant must be told
damage enough about the experiment to make an informed
Positron emission Studying the relative decision about participating.
tomography (PET) activity of nervous system This disclosure is accomplished through a carefully
structures worded informed consent form prepared by the
Magnetic resonance Studying structure in very researchers and reviewed by the campus human
imaging (MRI) fine detail
participants IRB.
Functional MRI (fMRI) Studying the activity of
The form provides information about the general
nervous system structures
purpose of the experiment and any risks that may
Electroencephalogram Studying brain activity,
(EEG) primarily during sleep or be involved. Participants are provided with contact
seizures information in case they have further questions
Evoked potential An adapted EEG used to regarding the study.

Participants are assured that their data will be
confidential and that they can choose to receive
information about the outcomes and conclusions of
the experiment.
2) ANIMAL SUBJECTS GUIDELINES
The American Psychological Association
(2008) stipulates that animal research should
have a clear scientific purpose, such as
increasing our knowledge of behavior or
improving the health and welfare of humans or
other animals.
The knowledge gained should balance and
justify the use of animals. The species used
should be appropriate to the task. If the same
questions can be asked without using animals,
the alternate method should be used
A second provision relates to basic care and
housing of the animals.
Finally, experimental procedures should cause
as little pain and distress as possible
3) THE ETHICS OF RESEARCH ON THE
INTERNET
Concerns about privacy, confidentiality, and
informed consent. Although it’s unlikely that any
Internet participant will experience physical harm
as a result of participation, what special
considerations are necessary to protect these
participants?
Privacy issues, obtaining informed consent from
participants, and difficulties in debriefing
participants are among the many ethical
considerations that researchers face
4) THE ETHICS OF STEM CELL RESEARCH
Most of the cells are obtained from unused
embryos from fertility clinics. In most cases, a
clinic will produce 7 or 8 embryos for couples
seeking assisted reproduction when only 2 or 3 will
be implanted. The couple must notify the clinic
about their wishes for the remaining embryos.
In addition to donations for research, the embryos
can remain frozen for future use, donated to
another couple, or destroyed.
The issue of destroying these “extra” embryos for
research is divisive.
In addition to opposing in vitro fertilization in the
first place, the Catholic Church argues that
embryonic stem cell research violates the sanctity
of life.
11
Chapter 1: MEANING AND NATURE OF
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
provides an introduction into the biological basis of
behavior. This course explores the structure and function of
the nervous system and its relationship to behavior, emotion,
and cognition.
KEY TERMS
BIOLOGY
is the science of life.
is the natural science that studies life and living
organisms, including their physical
structure,chemical processes, molecular
interactions, physiological mechanisms,
development and evolution.
PHYSIOLOGY
from the Greek word “Physis” meaning nature or
origin and “Logia” which means Study of
A branch of biology that deals with the workings
of the human body.
is the study of normal function within living
creatures. It is a sub-section of biology, covering a
range of topics that include organs, anatomy, cells,
biological compounds, and how they all interact to
make life possible.
PSYCHOLOGY
from the Greek word “Psyche” which mean mind
and “logia” which means study of.
it refers to the branch of science that studies the
working of the human mind more specifically the
ones that deal with behavior.
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
is the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and
developmental mechanisms of behavior and
experience
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
is branch of biological psychology that deals with
the workings of mind and body.
studies how the different workings of the body as
in direct link to the brain.
it is devoted to studying brain functioning
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT IN PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology studies the behavior of an individual.
The behavior of an individual is governed by the
changes in the body.
The changes in the body is profoundly affected by
the main provider of information throughout the
body which is the brain.
The subject is important to be able to understand
how small changes in the brain relates to the
differences in the actions of an individual more
precisely in the person’s behavior.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF
BEHAVIOR
EXPLAINING BEHAVIOR IN BIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE FALLS INTO FOUR CATEGORIES:
PHYSIOLOGICAL
relates a behavior to the activity of the brain and
other organs; it deals with the machinery of the
body.
FUNCTIONAL
describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did.
ONTOGENETIC
describes the development of structure or a behavior; it
traces the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and
the interactions among these influences in producing
behavioral tendencies.
MAJOR ISSUES
01. MIND-BRAIN RELATIONSHIP
Philosophers and scientists continue to address the mind
brain or mind-body relationship
DUALISM
the belief that mind and body are different kinds
of substance (thought substance and physical
substance) that exist independently but somehow
interact.
Rene Descartes proposed that mind and brain interact at a
single point in space, which he suggested was the pineal
gland, the smallest unpaired structure he could find the
brain.
MONOISM
the belief that the universe consists of only one
kind of existence.
VERSIONS OF MONOISM ARE AS
FOLLOWS:
MATERIALISM
the view that everything that exists is material, or
physical; mental events don’t exist at all; mind is
the figment of imagination; psychological
experiences can eventually be explained in purely
physical forms.
MENTALISM
the view that only the mind really exists and that
the physical world exists only because we think
about it.
IDENTITY POSITION
the view that mental processes are the same thing
as certain kinds of brain processes; every
experience is a brain activity, even though
12
descriptions of our thoughts sound very different
from descriptions of brain activities.
02. THE GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR
Everything in a human person depends on both
genes and environment. Without genes or without
an adequate environment, a person would not exist.
Genes affect behavior by controlling the production
and distribution of neurotransmitters
No genes & environment = NO SELF
MENDELIAN GENETICS
Mendel demonstrated that inheritance occurs
through genes.
1.HEREDITARY FACTORS (GENES) MUST EXIST.
Genes dictate the heredity and variations of
individuals. In a simpler form, Genes are the
information placed in the DNA and RNA that make
a person “YOU”.
In every specie, genes play a very vital role for a
biological mechanism.
2. TWO FACTORS EXIST FOR EACH
CHARACTERISTIC.
There must be two factors for each
characteristic: one from your mother and one
from your father.
3. (LAW OF SEGREGATION)
At the time of sex-cell formation, the hereditary
factors of a pair separate equally into the sex cells.
The sex cells are the only cells of the body to
undergo meiotic division. During that time, the sex
cells will separate, from 46 chromosomes to 23
chromosomes for each sex cell.
4.EACH SEX CELLS ONLY BEAR ONE
CHARACTERISTIC.
Not all sex cells have the same characteristics
5. (LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT)
Hereditary factors for different sort independently
of one another at sex cell formation
The variants that a cell receives for one gene
(during gamete formation) does not influence the
variants received for another gene. This is the
reason why there are different characteristics each
cell.
6. (LAW OF DOMINANCE)
Cells join randomly, regardless of the factors that
they carry characteristic that appeared in an
organism seemed to dominate over the one that
was recessive.

HERITABILITY
is an estimate of the amount of variation that is
due to genetic variation as opposed to
environmental variation.
Researchers estimates heritability through: twin
studies and adopted studies, among others.
HOWEVER, RESULTS OFTEN OVERESTIMATE
HUMAN HERITABILITY FOR SEVERAL REASONS:
The environmental quality varies little for most
adopted children.
Most of the results do not distinguish between the
effects of genes and those of prenatal environment.
After genes produce an early increase in some
behavioral tendency, that behavior may lead to
change in the environment that magnifies the
tendency, thus leading to what appears to be a huge
effect of heredity.
EVOLUTION
Evolution is the change of frequencies of various
genes over period of time.
FREQUENCIES OF GENE VARIANTS (ALLELES)
CHANGE IN POPULATIONS BY THESE FORCES:
NONRANDOM MATING
occurs when certain individuals contribute more
to the next generation than others; it increases
the incidence of certain recessive disorders.
MIGRATION
is the movement of populations, groups or
individuals.
GENETIC DRIFT
is change in allele frequencies in a population
from generation to generation that occurs due to
chance events.
May cause gene variants to disappear completely
and thereby reduce genetic variation
Ex. If the last green eyed person died in a
community, then there will only be brown & blue
eyed which is the more dominant.(genetic drift)
NATURAL SELECTION
the process in nature by which, according to
Darwin's theory of evolution, only the organisms
best adapted to their environment tend to survive
and transmit their genetic characters in increasing
numbers to succeeding generations while those
less adapted tend to be eliminated.
03. THE USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH
Most of what we know about the functioning of
the nervous system stems from research done on
nonhuman animals.
13
HERE ARE THE REASONS FOR ANIMAL
RESEARCH:
1.The underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across
species and sometimes are easier to study in a nonhuman
species.
2. We are interested in animals for the sake of
understanding.
3. What we learn about animals shed light on human
evolution.
4. Certain experiments cannot use human subjects because
of legal or ethical restrictions. However, animal research
today is conducted under legal and ethical controls that
attempt to minimize animal distress.
PROSPECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
THERE ARE CAREERS RELATED TO
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY.
A research career ordinarily requires a PhD in psychology,
biology, neuroscience, or other related field.
RESEARCHERS OF THIS FIELD CAN BE
IDENTIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENTIST
investigates how functioning of the brain and other
organs influences behavior.
NEUROSCIENTIST
studies the anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology
of the NS.
NEUROPSYCHOLOGIST
conducts behavioral tests to determine what
various brain damaged people can and cannot do
and how their condition changes over time.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIST
measures heart rate, breathing rate, brain waves,
and other body processes that change as a function
of people’s activities and information processing.
NEUROCHEMIST
investigates chemical reactions in the brain and
their consequences.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGIST
compares the behaviors of different species and
tries to relate them to evolutionary histories and
ways of life.
SOCIOBIOLOGIST
relates behaviors, especially social behaviors,
including those of humans, to the functions they
have served and therefore the presumed selective
pressures that caused them to evolve.
 14

THE RELATED MEDICAL SPECIALTIES ARE:

NEUROLOGIST

treats people with brain damage or diseases of the

brain.

NEUROSURGEON

performs brain surgery.

PSYCHIATRIST

helps people with emotional distress or

troublesome behaviors, sometimes using drugs or
other medical procedures.

INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELING
REPUBLIC ACT. 9258
The act professionalizing the practice of guidance
in the Philippines
As a profession involving an integrated approach
to the development of a well-functioning
individual primarily to utilize their potentials to the
fullest and plan their present and future in
accordance with their abilities and needs
GUIDANCE
Assistance given by a person to another in making
intelligent choices, adjustments and in solving
problems in order to grow in independence and
ability to be responsible for himself
COUNSELING
Is the heart of the Guidance program
GUIDANCE COUNSELOR
The professional conducting and the services of the
Guidance & Counseling.
GUIDANCE OFFICE
The office that dispense all the services of the
Guidance & Counseling
GUIDANCE PERSONNEL
• Perform specific task
• Separate from teaching and disciplining
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN GUIDANCE
THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM IS AN INTEGRAL PART
OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
1. It provides for the holistic development of the
students.
2. Education and guidance support and complement
each other to maximize students’ growth and
development.
3. Administrative and faculty understanding and
support of the Guidance Program are crucial to its
success.
4. Guidance personnel perform specific tasks distinct
and separate from teaching and disciplining.
IT IS RESPONSIVE TO THE STUDENTS’ NEEDS
1. The Guidance Program addresses the
developmental and adjustment needs of the
students.
2. The Program considers the unique culture and
climate of the specific population and environment
it serves.
3. Program offerings are based on regular, systematic
assessment of the students’ needs and environment.
15
4. Guidance is a continuous process throughout the
person’s stay in school
5. Guidance activities are specifically planned and
developed to ensure program effectiveness
6. The Guidance team consists of the school
counselor, psychologists, social workers, teachers,
administrators and other educational professionals
and staff who work together for the welfare of the
students.
7. . The Guidance Program recognizes the need to
provide objective evidence of accomplishments and
the rationale for its continued existence.
It recognizes the student as an individual and is premised
on the following:
1. Every individual has needs that must be attended
to.
2. Guidance should be extended to all.
3. Every individual is unique and possesses worth and
dignity.
4. Human beings can develop their own insights.
5. All individuals have the right and capability to
make decisions and plans.
The Program is in the hands of qualified personnel
1. The school counselor is a role model of positive
human relations
2. Professionally trained guidance personnel are
indispensable for ensuring competence, leadership,
and direction
History of Philippines guidance & counseling
Guidance Program was developed in the United States (US)
and brought to the Philippines as a formal set of services by
Filipinos who had studied in the US in the 1950’s.
Before that, some services which later on came to be known
as Guidance Services are already offered for the purpose of
attending to needs observed in school clientele.
1932
The year that formal guidance set-up was started
The year when Sinforoso Padilla started a Psychological
Clinic (til 1941) as a response to the cases of student
discipline, emotional concerns, and academic and vocational
problems that he encountered.
1945
The first Guidance Institute was held at the National
Teachers College
gave birth to the Guidance Association of the Philippines
1951
Congress proposed the establishment of functional and
effective counseling programs
1952
The Division Superintendents of schools recommended the
 16

establishment of Guidance Services in the public schools.

1953

Philippine Association Guidance Counselors (PAGC) was

organized to study the needs, interests, and potentialities of
the youth and to establish a Testing Bureau

THE GU IDANCE TEAM

• School counselor

• Psychologist

• Social workers

• Teachers

• Administrators

• Other educational professional

and staff

GUIDANCE

• Should be extended to all

• Unique and possesses worth and dignity

• Right and capability to make decisions and plans

SCHOOL COUNSELOR

• Role model

• Positivehuman relations

GUIDANCE PROGRAM

• Developed in the united states (US)

• In the year 1950’s

GUIDANCE SERVICES

• Offered for the purpose of attending to

needs observed in school clientele