Geologic Structures

Tectonic Forces
# Structural geology: The branch of geology concerned with the shapes, arrangement, and
interrelationships of bedrock units and the forces that cause them

Deformation When rocks are subjected to stresses (forces) greater than their own
internal strength
Caused by Stress and resulting in Strain

Stress is the force applied divided by the area (the continuum replacement for force)

A force per unit area

Force

3 major types of differential stress:

Compressional stress
Tensional stress
Shear stress
Stress is a vector Stress can be acting in any orientation to a plane
Stress acting on a single plane can be reduced to 2 vector
components
Normal stress component and Shear stress component
On either side of the plane, these components have opposing
tractions

Any stress field is equivalent to a set of 3 perpendicular, normal

stresses called the Principal Stresses (designated, σ1, σ2, and σ3)
Which are parallel to the directions of maximum, intermediate,
and least principal stress

If the principal stresses are equal (rare), it is called Confining stress

Differential Stress – Unequal in different directions / Stress axes will be unequal

Stress and Strain in the Earth’s Crust

 Compressive stress: A stress due to a force pushing together on a body

 Tensional stress: Caused by forces pulling away from one

another in opposite directions

 Shear stress: Due to movement parallel to but in

opposite directions along a fault or other boundary
 Compressive stress
 “Push-together” stress
 Shortens and thickens crust
 Associated with orogenesis (mtn. building)

Tensional stress
 “Pull-apart” stress
 Thins and stretches crust
 Associated with rifting
 In geology we never see stress -- We only see the results of stress as it deforms materials

 Strain: The change in size (volume) or shape, or both, while an object is undergoing stress
 Strain occurs when stresses exceed rock strength
 Rock strength determine the resistance of the material against the applied stress
 Strained rocks deform by folding, flowing, or fracturing

For example, if a block 10 cm on a side is

deformed so that it becomes 9 cm long, the
strain is (10-9)/10 or 0.1 (sometimes
expressed in %, in this case 10 %)

Note that strain is dimensionless

 Behavior of rocks to stress & strain
Elastic strain: Is reversible
When stress is removed, item goes back to
original dimensions
(ex: rubber band)
Engineers consider elastic good in final
products like buildings and roads
Elastic limit: The maximum amount of stress that can be applied to a body before it deforms in a
permanent way by bending or breaking
When the (strength) of a rock is surpassed, it either flows (ductile deformation) or fractures (brittle
deformation)
Ductile deformation: Continuous, dispersed deformation, no
discontinuities develop
Capable of being molded and bent under
stress
Materials will flow like molten plastic

Brittle Deformation: General term for irreversible

strains that includes jointing and
faulting
In brittle deformation, there are Strain
discontinuities
Cracking or rupturing of a body under stress
Breaking glass is brittle
  Factors controlling rock strength and deformation style:

1. Temperature and confining pressure

Low T and P = brittle deformation
High T and P = ductile deformation
2. Rock type – Mineral composition controls
strength
3. Time – Stress applied for a long time
generates change

1. Brittle Deformation structure in the Earth – Faults, Fractures, Joints

Near surface, low temperature, low confining
pressure
Typical of crystalline rocks composed of minerals
with strong internal structures

2. Ductile Deformation structure in the Earth – Folds

Deeper, higher temperature, higher confining
pressure
Zones of weakness and water aid in ductile
deformation
 Horizontal bedding

The layered nature of the rock The layered structure results from the deposition of
sediments in sheets or beds which have large areal
extent compared to their thickness
Similar to present day sand deposition on lakes or oceans

Then with very low increasing pressure and

temperature they form sedimentary rocks
Then with the dynamic processes like plate movements, igneous intrusions, mountain building

 Pressure and temperature increase with these dynamic processes

 Which cause metamorphism

and depending on the type of

deformation shape of the
horizontal beds change
All theses processes change the orientation of original horizontal rock layers by breaking and shifting
them
This cause the layers to become inclined even vertical

Formation of inclined even vertical plane

Now as the layer become inclined they have a angle of inclination

This is called dip and it is the slope of a geological surface

There are two aspects to the dip of a plane

(a) the direction of dip, which is the compass direction

towards which the plane slopes

(b) the angle of dip, which is the angle that the plane
makes with a horizontal plane
When a plane become inclined, it should have a intersection line with the horizontal plane
or the Earth surface

The angle of that intersection line with the geographic

north (N) is the strike direction of that rock layer
 Mapping Geologic Structures
 Describing and mapping the orientation of a geologic structure (like fault plane or foliation plane
involves determining …
Strike (trend)
Dip (inclination)

 Strike (trend)
Strike is the direction of the line of intersection
between the plane and a horizontal plane
The compass direction of the line produced by the intersection
with respect to magnetic north
Expressed as a angle relative to N
N37°E or simply 37°
N12°W or simply 348°
 Dip (inclination)
Dip is perpendicular to strike and is the vertical angle of
the plane
The angle of inclination of the surface of a rock
unit or fault measured from a horizontal plane
Includes both an angle of inclination and a
direction toward which the rock is inclined
82°SE
17°SW
 Rocks are bent by crustal deformation into a series of wave-like undulations called folds
Most folds result from compressional stresses which shorten and thicken the crust

They are ranging in their scale from a few inches up to several miles

PARTS OF FOLDS

1- Limbs: These are the two side-parts of the

folded rocks in both sides of a fold as
flanks
2- Axial Plane: is the plane that divides the fold
into two symmetrical parts
It could be vertical or inclined
It could be again folded or curved
3- Axis : is the line of intersection between the fold surface
and the axial plane (a-b)

It could be again vertical or horizontal or inclined

4- Hinge line : The hinge point is the point of

maximum radius of curvature for a fold

5. Crest: is the highest point of the fold surface

6. Trough: is the lowest point of the fold surface

7. Inflection point: is the point on a limb at which the

concavity reverses
Folds and Nature of Folding
 There are 2 important processes which can cause the development of folds

1. Bucking
When rocks are subjected to a lateral force they
buckle and undergo folding

2. Bending
When rocks respond to changes in shape outside the layer, such as
those brought about by loading of overburden, they undergo bending
 CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS
I- GENETIC CLASSIFICATION
(a) Antiform: (b) Synform:
It is a convex-upward fold whose limbs It is a concave-upward fold whose limbs dip
dip away from each other toward each other

II- GEOMETRICAL CLASSIFICATION

(a) Symmetrical:
It is a fold whose two limbs dip in the same angle away from each other (anticline) or toward
each other (syncline)
(b) Asymmetrical
It is a fold whose two limbs dip in different angles
away from each other (anticline) or toward each
other (syncline)
 III- SHAPE CLASSIFICATION
These are folds that were subjected into different types of deformational stresses
Fold tightness is defined by the angle between the fold's limbs, called the inter-limb angle
(a) Gentle folds
Have an inter-limb angle of between
180° and 120°
(b) Open Folds:
Open Fold was mildly stressed and
has gently dipping limbs
Interlimb angle for open folds range
from 120° to 70°

(c) Close folds

Interlimb angle for close folds from
70° to 30° 1. Symmetrical open folds 2. Asymmetrical open fold
3. Asymmetrical fold, closed. 4. Symmetrical fold, closed
(b) Tight Folds
A fold whose limbs have been
compressed until they are
nearly parallel
Interlimb angle for tight folds
from 30° to 0°
Tight folds can be Isoclinal Folds if :
These are folds whose two limbs are parallel to each other and dip in the same direction at the same
angle
They are either Anticlines,Synclines, Inclined and Recumbent isoclinal folds
There are certain fold profile geometries that  occur so frequently in nature that they are given specific
names
Chevron Folds
These are folds whose crests are sharp
angular

Kink folds (or kink-bands)

A deformation band in a single crystal or in foliated
rocks in which the orientation is changed due to
slipping on several parallel slip planes

Box folds
A fold in which the broad, flat top of an anticline or
the broad, flat bottom of a syncline is bordered by
steeply dipping limbs.
 IV- BASED UPON THE ATTITUDE OF AXIS

(a) Non-Plunged Fold

These are folds whose axis is not merged into
the land and parallel to the earth’s surface
(b) Plunged Fold
These are folds whose axis is merging into the land
Domes -
Upwarped circular or slightly elongated structure
3-dimensional anticline resembling inverted cereal
bowl rocks in center, younger rocks outside
Oldest

Basins –
Downwarped circular or slightly elongated structure
3-dimensional syncline resembling upright cereal
bowl
Youngest rocks are found near the center, oldest
rocks on the flanks
 Boudinage

Is a geological term for structures formed by

extension
If a rigid tabular body (inter-layered within ductile
material) is stretched

The rigid layer will be deformed between less

competent surroundings

The competent bed begins to break up,

forming sausage-shaped boudins

Its characteristic is sausage or barrel shape

 Joint

Joint refers to a fracture in rock

Fracture in rocks along which no appreciable
movement has occurred

Joints generally occur as sets, with each set

consisting of joints sub-parallel to each other

Rock normally fractures in a plane parallel to the min. principal stress

(the direction in which the rock is being stretched) and perpendicular
to the max. principal stress
Origin of Joints
(i)  Poisson effect:
During exhumation, unloading allows vertical
extension and consequent horizontal
contraction

(ii)  Membrane effect

During exhumation, rock layers move away from centre of Earth and radius of
curvature increases
Exfoliation joints: Form by unloading of bedrock through erosion.
(iii) Thermal contraction e.g. during cooling of lava, gives columnar joints
Most commonly expressed as vertical Columnar Jointing
(iv)   Bending of brittle rock layers
During folding or faulting, local stresses
may be tensile
Tectonic joints
Types of joints
Tectonic joints are formed during deformation
episodes
Whenever the differential stress is high enough to induce tensile failure of the rock

Unloading joints (Release joints)

Joints are most commonly formed when uplift

Erosion removes the overlying rocks

thereby reducing the compressive load and
allowing the rock to expand laterally
 Why Study
Joints:
 Affect strength of rock bodies  Affects permeability of reservoirs
 Can lead to rock falls  Controls natural erosion
 Affect regional permeability of rock bodies; direct groundwater or oil flow
 FAULTS
Are fissures or ruptures in the earth’s crust along which there is a definite displacement
of the rock-walls around the fault.
A fault plane is the plane along which one
block displaced from another block causing
faulting
A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the
line of intersection between the fault plane and
the Earth's surface

The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known

as the hanging wall and footwall

By definition, the hanging wall occurs above

the fault plane and the footwall occurs below
the fault
Slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of
a fault plane
Throw of the fault is the vertical component of the dip separation

Heave of the fault is the horizontal component

A fault's sense of slip is defined as relative motion of the rock on each side of the fault
with respect to the other side
We can classify faults depending on the relative motion of the 2 blocks

1. Strike-slip Faults
The fault surface is usually near vertical and the
footwall moves either left or right or laterally
A fault where the movement is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault

Tensional stresses cause rock to

break
 Strike slip faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along
them

a. Right-lateral strike slip fault:

A strike-slip fault in which the block
seen across the fault appears displaced
to the right
b. Left-lateral strike slip fault:

A strike-slip fault in which the block

seen across the fault appears
displaced to the left
 Central Range strike-slip fault zone, Trinidad Island

Extends from eastern Venezuela

and is the result of the oblique
collision and transpression
between Caribbean and South
Smerican plates

Central Range Fault zone movement is (12 ± 3

mm/yr)
2. Dip-slip fault:
Movement is parallel to the dip of the fault surface
Depending on the movement of the two blocks dip slip fault can be divided into 2 groups
a. Normal fault:
A fault where the hanging-wall block
has moved downward relative to the
footwall block
 Caused by tension forces
The fault is unaffected by erosion. Diagram shows area after erosion; dashed
Arrows indicate compressive stress. lines indicate portion eroded away
Graben:
When a block bounded by normal faults and
the block itself drops down

Horst:
When a block bounded by normal faults is uplifted
 b. Reverse fault:
When the hanging-wall block has moved
upward relative to the footwall block

 Caused by Compressional forces

The fault is unaffected by erosion. Diagram shows area after erosion;
Arrows indicate compressive stress. dashed lines indicate portion eroded
away
c. Thrust fault or Thrust:
A reverse fault in which the dip of the fault
plane is at a low angle to horizontal
Thrust fault due to horizontal compression
3. Oblique-slip fault or Oblique fault:
Both strike-slip and dip-slip components
Nearly all faults will have some component of
both dip-slip and strike-slip

The Blue Anchor Fault

Blue Anchor, Somerset, UK,
4. Listric fault
A type of fault in which the fault plane is
curved
The dip of the fault plane becomes shallower
with increased depth and may flatten into a
sub-horizontal
Step 1: Deposition  horizontally Step 1 (cont.): Deposition  horizontally

Beds of sedimentary rock are deposited in a

horizontal orientation
Step 2: Tilting of rock layers due to the deformation of rock layers by Earth’ s
Dynamic Processes e.g. Plate Tectonics, mountain building etc.
Step 3: The rock layers now exposed to atmosphere and erosion to create new land form
Step 4: Again submergence of old and tilted rock layers
Consequent deposition of new sediments over the old rock
layers

Step 5: Formation of Unconformity

 Unconformity
Unconformity is basically a time
gap
Which means that there was no deposition
of sediments only erosion
And during the non-depositional time gap, tectonic
activities change the orientation of the rock layers
Once eroded rocks submerged, new deposition to
start
New deposition will form new sedimentary rock
layers
Which in turn, cause a angular relationship
between the 2 different rock layers
 Three types of unconformities include:
1) Angular Unconformity
2) Disconformity
3) Nonconformity

(1) Angular Unconformity

 Compressional forces cause

sedimentary layers to fold as the layers
uplifted

 Rock layers below the erosional

surface are inclined at an angle to the
erosional surface and layers above

 The folded layers are eroded and sinks

where sediment is deposited over the
erosional surface
 (2) Disconformity
 Rock layers above and below the erosional surface are parallel
 (3) Nonconformity

 The eroded surface of metamorphic or plutonic igneous rocks are buried by younger
sedimentary layers